Summary of Augustus' Powers

Power	Meaning	Year	Allowed Augustus to...
Triumvir	Rule of three (vir = men, trio = three)	43-33 BC	He shared this power with Mark Antony and Lepidus. This "three man commission for restoring the constitution of the republic" (tresviri rei publicae constituendae) in fact was given the power to make or annul laws without approval from either the Senate or the people; their judicial decisions were not subject to appeal, and they named magistrates at will. Essentially, it was the absolute power of a dictator, just divided between three men. However, with Lepidus quickly sidelined and Antony defeated at Actium by the end Augustus held this power all by himself (cough cough - dictator - cough)
Oath of Allegiance	Sworn by the people of Italy and the western provinces	33 BC	Sworn by all citizens (RG 25) which bound them to him for life, gave him the justification to war with Mark Antony at Actium in the following years. It also ensured the loyalty of the people and the army throughout his life
Consulship	Head of the Roman state (two each year)	43, 33, 31-23, 5 and 2 BC	As the chief magistrate in Rome, the Consuls were the chairmen of the Senate, they commanded the Roman armies and could interfere with the decisions of all lower ranking Senators. Only technically the power of the tribune or the people's assemblies could limit their powers, but popular assemblies no longer met and Augustus himself eventually took the power of the tribunes
Proconsul	Governor of a province, a position given to consuls once they have served their term in office	27 BC - 14AD	This gave Augustus the right to govern provinces. In 27 BC Augustus took this power (as it was his right as Consul) but significantly selected provinces with military garrisons to control the army and held a number of provinces rather than the traditional one
Tribunicia Potestas	Tribunician Power (held the powers of a tribune but wasn't one himself)	23 BC	He held this power for life. This not only allowed him to claim his decisions were on behalf of the people (which was traditionally the Tribune's role), but also gave him the following rights: The right to submit legislation to the Senate To summon the Senate To put motions before the Senate The right to veto laws passed by the Senate The right to compel people to obey his orders and impose sanctions The right to extend auxilium, the power to help those being oppressed by other magistrates - under this right Augustus could institute investigations
Maius Imperium	Literally "greater power" - Imperium was a power bestowed on any powerful magistrate (such as consuls) through which they enacted their power)	23 BC	As compensation for laying down his consulships, Augustus was given maius imperium (greater power), which gave him the right to override provincial powers and enter their provinces at will as well as the right to exercise his imperium within the pomerium (the city boundary of Rome, something only the most powerful magistrates could do)
Intendent of corn supply	Arose because of a famine in 22 BC	22 BC	Given charge over the corn supply, essentially making him the benefactor to the urban poor who relied on the grain dole for survival. Eventually, he transferred the responsibility for this to the Equestrians, who held the position as Praefectus Annonae (though Augustus was still the main overseer)
Censor	Censor of the Senate	28 BC and 14 AD	Allowed Augustus to hold a census of the Senate, which means that he could essentially enrol new members into the Senate and expel others - though he is very careful of doing this as he knew that it would breed hostility
Supervisor of laws and morals		19, 18 and 11 BC	This is the power that allowed Augustus to enact his social/moral legislation, as he was entrusted with restoring Roman morality
Pontifex Maximus	High Priest	2 BC	Head of Roman religion - making Augustus central to religious life in Rome (i.e in charge of other priesthoods, sacrifices and religious festivals)

Augutus also had a multitude of honours bestowed upon him, such as;

• 27 BC - 14 AD: Princeps Senatus, or 'leader of the Senate' (RG 7)
• 27 BC: "Princeps" or "First Citizen"
• 27 BC: "Augustus" - "Exalted/Revered One"
• 23 BC: the right of a seat on the Consuls' platform at the front of the Senate house
• 23 BC: the right of speaking first at a Senate Meeting (ius primae relationis)

He also had auctoritas or influence from his wealth, prestige, renown, fame etc, as well as 'amicitia' - patronage of people (i.e the senators, the poets etc)

Did Augustus Restore the Republic? Tacitus 2.1,3.1

Does the writer agree that Augustus restored the Republic?

• NO
• Tacitus writes of Augustus in an unfavourable way. For example: "he gradually increased his power, arrogating to himself the functions of the Senate, the magistrates, and the law"
• Arrogating means taking/claiming something without justification
• Tacitus doesn't seem to agree that Augustus restored the Republic and paints him as a bad person seizing power
• "He faced no opposition, since the bravest souls had died in battle or fallen victim to proscription" - implies that Augustus was evil and would've have to be stopped by someone brave
• He makes Augustus sound like a dictator

What powers does the writer claim that Augustus had?

• "he gradually increased his power, arrogating to himself the functions of the senate, the magistrates, and the law"
• "content to defend the people by virtue of the tribunician power"

What powers does the writer claim Augustus refused?

• The writer doesn't mention any powers that Augustus refused

What are the limitations of the source?

• Tacitus was sceptical of Augustus due to living under the rule of a tyrant
• He lived one hundred years after the events he writes of, so he is bound to be inaccurate in some places

Did Augustus Restore the Republic? Res Gestae 4-10, 34

Does the writer agree that Augustus restored the Republic?

• YES
• Augustus writes that he did in fact restore the Republic, but he took power in all but name
• He makes it sound like all of the powers he receives are gifted to him by the people and the Senate, and that he is not reaching for power himself at all
• "having become master of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the Republic from my power (potestas) to the control of the Senate and the Roman people"
• "by decree of the Senate I was called Augustus"
• "I excelled in all authority (auctoritas) but I had no more power (potestas) than others who were my colleagues in each magistracy"
• He makes it seem like Augustus wasn't the single most powerful man (as he had no more power than his colleagues) and that things were just given to him

What powers does the writer claim that Augustus had?

• "I was acclaimed imperator twenty-one times"
• "I had been consul thirteen times when I wrote this, and I was in the thirty-seventh year of my tribunician power"
• "I was triumvir for setting the Republic in order for ten consecutive years"
• "I was princeps senatus, up to the day of writing this, for forty years"
• "I was pontifex maximus, augur, quindecimvir sacris faciundis, septumvir epulonum, frater arvalis, sodalis titius and fetialise"

What powers does the writer claim that Augustus refused?

• "The Senate decreed further triumphs for me, all of which I declined"
• "The dictatorship was offered to me both in my absence and in my presence by both the people and the Senate...,but I refused it"
• "the Senate and the people of Rome agreed that I should be appointed supervisor of laws and morals with supreme power and without a colleague, but I did not accept any office offered contrary to ancestral tradition"

What are the limitations of the source?

• Augustus is the only person in the world who knows his side of the story, and all of the powers he was given, therefore it is more than fair to assume that his account is quite accurate. The only limitation is the fact that Augustus was writing about himself, and so would be very unlikely to write unfavourably - making him biased

Did Augustus Restore the Republic? Suetonius 26-28

Does the writer agree that Augustus restored the Republic?

• NO
• "he usurped the consulship in the twentieth year of his age, leading his legions against the city as if it were that of an enemy"
• "sending messengers to demand the office"
• The Centurion Cornelius showed his sword and said "this will make him consul if you do not"
• "He was...a member of the triumvirate for restoring the state to order"

What powers does the writer claim that Augustus had?

• "Lifelong tribunician power"
• "Task of supervising public morals and scrutinising the law"

What powers does the writer claim that Augustus refused?

• He had the powers of a censor, but refused the title
• "Although he did not adopt the role of a censor, he was privileged to hold a public census"

What are the limitations of the source?

• Suetonius came after Augustus so his account can not be completely factual, as it was written years after the events happened. Although, Suetonius had access to emperor Hadrian's private archives which means that he would have had good sources for his account

Did Augustus Restore the Republic? Cassius Dio 53.16-17

Does the writer agree that Augustus restored the Republic?

• NO
• "in reality Caesar himself was destined to have absolute control of all matters for all time"
• "In this way the power of both people and senate passed entirely into the hands of Augustus, and from his time there was, strictly speaking, a monarch; for monarchy would be the truest name for it"
• "He continued to be sole ruler for life"
• "in order to preserve the appearance of having this power by virtue of the laws and not because of their own domination, the emperors have taken to themselves all the functions, including the titles, of the offices which under the Republic and by the free gift of the people were powerful"
• "These are the institutions which have taken over from the Republic"

What powers does this writer claim that Augustus had?

• Master of funds
• Consul (proconsul when outside of Rome)
• Commander of the soldiers
• "The name of imperator is held by them (emperors) all for life... in token of their independent authority"
• "By virtue of the titles named they secure the right to make levies, to collect funds, declare war, make peace, rule foreigners and citizens alike everywhere and always" - "Even to the extent of being able to put to death both knights and Senators"
• "All the other privileges once granted to the Consuls and other officials possessing independent authority"
• "by virtue of holding the censorship they investigate our lives and morals as well as take the census" - this involved being able to enrol and erase people from different classes (e.g equestrian, senatorial)
• "The tribunician power...gives them the right to nullify the effects of measures taken by any other official"

What powers does this writer claim Augustus refused?

• The role of dictator - Augustus took every power "with the single exception of the dictatorship"

What are the limitations of the source?

• Cassius Dio was born over a hundred years after Augustus, so although there was no pressure on him to write favourably, Dio's account is limited as the writer had no first hand experience of Augustus and his rule, meaning that the information he acquired throughout his lifetime may have been polluted

Did Augustus Restore the Republic? Velleius Paterculas 89.2,89.3,89.5

Does the writer agree that Augustus restored the Republic?

• YES
• "the traditional form of the Republic was brought back"
• "there was nothing thereafter which men could hope for from the gods" (as Augustus had done everything already)
• "force restored to the laws, authority to the courts, and majesty to the Senate"

What powers does the write claim that Augustus had?

• He had ultimate power - on par with the gods
• "there was nothing thereafter which men could hope for from the gods...which Augustus...did not restore to the Republic"
• Only the power of consul was Augustus prevailed upon to hold successively - but we all know that wasn't the true extent of his power

What powers does the writer claim that Augustus refused?

• The dictatorship - "His rejection of the dictatorship was as obstinate as the people's determination to offer it to him"
• "force restored to the laws, authority to the courts, majesty to the Senate" - he restored their powers rather than taking them for himself
• Consulship - "later he was to refuse it vigorously"

What are the limitations of the source?

• Velleius was a contemporary writer. He was a soldier who became a Senator under the reigns of Augustus and Nero. As he benefited during their reigns he writes favourably of Augustus

The Constitutional Settlements: How Augustus created the Empire: Part Four

Gradual Process:

• Augustus was very good at politics, and created the Principate, which was an entirely new approach to government. It was somewhat disorientating to the Romans. It was designed to be so in order to gradually confuse them away from the older notions of rule
• It was a unique institution for its era - there was nothing else like it
• It was imposed gradually, with many of its most significant aspects being done behind closed doors or in such a manner that it allowed for a creeping expansion from Princeps to Emperor (whilst keeping the population oblivious to the dictatorship)

Power:

• In theory, Augustus was nothing more than a powerful magistrate, among consuls and proconsuls
• He himself was Consul every year, along with colleagues that were equal in title, and had a large province to administer. After the second settlement of 23 BC, his maius imperium and tribunicia potestas were the basis of his legal authority. They had republican precedents, only now they were pushed farther and contributed to an Augustan auctoritas that was as unique as the Principate, and made him the most powerful Roman alive, with the greatest personal authority and legitimacy
• The republic was seemingly re-established. Annual elections for the consulship were seriously contested, while Augustus' power was magisterial, deriving from the masses in good republican tradition, and he consulted with the Senate. There was no sign of tyranny, and it appeared that he let the Principate run without interfering

Augustus' Own View: The Res Gestae:

[34.1] In my sixth and seventh consulships [28-27 BC], after I had extinguished the civil wars, having become master of everything by the consent of all, I transferred the republic from my power [potestas] to the control of the Senate and the Roman people [34.2] In return for this service of mine by decree of the Senate I was called Augustus, and the door-posts of my house were screened with laurel at public expense, and a civic crown was fixed above my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian Senate house with an inscription attesting that the Senate and the Roman people gave it to me because of my courage, clemency, justice and piety. [34.3] After that time I excelled in authority [auctoritas], but I had no more power [potestas] than others who were my colleagues in each magistracy

Did people fall for this trick? Cassius Dio:53.11-13:

"Varied feelings took possession of the senators. A few of them knew his real intention and consequently kept applauding him enthusiastically; of the rest, some were suspicious of his words, while others believed them, and therefore both classes marvelled equally, the one at his cunning and the other at his decision, and both were displeased, the former in his scheming and the latter at his change of mind. For already there were some who abhorred the democratic constitution as a breeder of strife, who were pleased at the change in government, and took delight in Caesar. Consequently, though they were variously affected by his announcement, their views were the same. For, on the one hand, those who believed he had spoken the truth could not show their pleasure - those who wished to do so being restrained by their fear and the others by their hopes - and those, on the other hand, who did not believe it did not dare accuse him and expose his insincerity, some because they were afraid and others because they did not care to do so. Hence all the doubters either were compelled to believe him or else pretended that they did. As for praising him, some had not the courage and others were unwilling; on the contrary, but while he was reading and afterwards, they kept shouting out, begging for a monarchical government and urging every argument in its favour, until they forced him as it was made to appear, to assume autocratic power. His very first act was to secure a decree granting to the men who should compose his bodyguard double the pay that was given to rest of the soldiers, so that he might be strictly guarded. When this was done, he was eager to establish the monarchy in very truth"

The Constitutional Settlements: How Augustus created the Empire Part Three

Purpose of the Constitutional Settlement:

• To restore popular confidence in the mechanisms of state; the initial success of these measures is indicated in the rise in interest rates, reflecting an increase in liquid capital. The major question remaining, however, pertained to the means of governance in the post-Sulla and post-Caesar era
• The answer to the question of government was the Principate, which emerged in two 'settlements' of 27 and 23 BC. Until 27 BC, there was an annual consulship, which Octavian always occupied

The First Settlement, January 27 BC

• Personal constitutional power:
• In Rome: consul (imperium)
• Outside Rome: proconsul (imperium proconsulare)
• The proconsul's province was to include:
• Hispania Tarraconensis
• Hispania Baetica
• Tres Galliae
• Gallia Narbonensis
• Syria
• Cyprus
• Cilicia Campestris
• Personal influence:
• auctoritas - authority (see Res Gestae 34)
• Princeps Senatus - the senior Senator in the Roman Senate
• campaigning personally for his choices as magistrates every year
• using his amicitia (friendship) as well as the threat of loss of it to keep people cooperative

Round Two:

• The second 'settlement' came in 23, Augustus began by relinquishing the annual, repeating consulship, an office that was somewhat offensive to the traditional senatorial aristocracy
• More importantly though, the Senate changed the nature of Augustus' imperium. Usually, a proconsul's imperium lapsed when he crossed the Pomerium into the core Roman lands, which were to be directly administered by the Senate. Now, Augustus was allowed to keep his imperium wherever he was
• In addition, his imperium was augmented to maius imperium, overriding that of all others in the state. Part of this involved his receipt of tribunicia potestas, the power of a tribune to introduce legislation into the Senate, as well as to veto administrative legislation and certain categories of senatorial actions
• Thus, while the form of republican life was restored and guaranteed by Augustus, his individual steering power was indisputable

The Second Settlement, January 27 BC:

• Resignation of the consulship (after 23, Augustus only held the office twice, in 5 BC and 2 BC, to preside over the introduction of his adopted sons into public life)
• In Rome: the grant of tribunicia potestas (the status and privileges, but not the burdens of the office, of a Tribune of the People). This gave Augustus the right to veto any actions of any magistrate, Senate, or Assemblies that did not suit him
• Special grants (to compensate for the powers lost with the renunciation of the annual consulship)
• The right of a seat on the Consul's platform at the front of the Senate house
• The right of speaking first at a Senate meeting
• The right to summon a meeting of the Senate
• The cura annonae, care of Rome's grain supply (which bought patronage from the Plebs)
• In the Provinces: imperium maius proconsulare
• The right to govern his own provinces and armies
• The right to interfere in any other governor's province when Augustus deemed it necessary

The Constitutional Settlements: How Augustus created the Empire Part Two

Advice from his friends:

Agrippa speaks (Dio 52.2.1-4)

"Be not surprised, Caesar, if I shall try to turn your thoughts away from monarchy, even though I would derive many adventures from it, at least if it was you who held the position. For if it were profitable to you also, I should advocate it most earnestly; but since the privileges of a monarchy are by no means the same for the rulers as for their friends, but, on the contrary, jealousies and dangers fall to the lot of rulers while their friends reap...all the benefits they can wish for. I have thought it right, in this question as in all others, to have regard not for my own interests, but for yours and the state's..."

"For surely no one will assert that we are obliged to chose monarchy in any and all circumstances... If we choose it, people will think that we have fallen victims to our own good fortune and have lost our senses because of our successes, or else that we have been aiming at monarchy all the while."

"All men, of course, claim the right to rule, and for this reason submit to being ruled in turn; they are unwilling to have others overreach them, and therefore are not obliged, on their part, to overreach others. They are pleased with the honours bestowed upon them by their equals, and approve of the penalties inflicted upon them by the laws."

Solution: Hybrid Government System:

• Mix between Monarchy and Republic He decided to carefully maintain the republican framework:
• The Senate and the assemblies kept meeting
• Magistrates were elected every year
• Octavian was within this framework by being elected Consul year after year until 23 BC when a different modus operandi was devised

A carefully staged Constitution

• Augustus was not just any Consul
• Senate meetings in early 27 BC were undoubtedly the result of much previous negotiation and discussion, and were a perfect and deliberate example
• On 13th January, Octavian solemnly renounced all of his remaining special powers, including his command over the provinces, the armed forces stationed there, and control of all the finances
• In essence, that meant returning these powers to the Senate amounted to a formal restoration of the Republic. Three days later, in just as memorable a ceremony, the Senate handed back half the provinces, specifically those where most of the legions were deployed; this meant mainly the provinces on the frontiers
• There were alternatives, but Augustus pointedly refers to them in the Res Gestae only, and just as pointedly, he concludes each of them with a repeated refusal: non recipi - "I did not accept"
• For instance, "both the Senate and the people offered me the dictatorship" - non recipi. "They offered me the consulship for life" - non recipi. Three times "the Senate and the people agreed that I should be appointed supervisor of laws and morals without a colleague with supreme power - non recipi any office inconsistent with the custom of our ancestors"

Terminology: Augustan Power:

• His title wasn't King or Dictator, but princeps, first citizen. The term had long been in use; the oldest Senator who had held office of consul, or censor was the princeps of the Senate and usually one of the first, if not the first, to speak
• In the republic, princepes were known to have been the noblest and most influential members of the aristocracy who, because of their merits and ability to influence others, were held in the highest esteem

The Constitutional Settlements: How Augustus created the Empire Part One

"In my sixth and seventh consulships (28-27 BC), after I had extinguished civil wars, and at a time when with universal consent I was in possession of all power, I transferred the res publica from my power to the discernment of the Senate and the People of Rome. For this merit of mine, I was named Augustus by decree of the Senate, and the doorposts of my house were publicly wreathed with laurels and a civic crown was fastened over my door and a golden shield was set up in the Julian Senate house; the inscription on this shield attested that it was given me by the Senate and People of Rome on account of my courage, clemency, justice, and sense of duty. After this time I excelled all in influence (auctoritas), but I possessed no more official power (potestas) than others who were my colleagues in several magistracies"
- Res Gestae, 34

Restoration:

• Egypt had been conquered - coins with that legend show a crocodile snapping its jaws
• Antony was dead, and the long, excruciating period of civil war had come to an end
• As Augustus put it in Res Gestae (34.1), at the age of 32, he was "in possession of all power"

Above is the Aureus of Octavian, minted in the province of Asia in 28 BC.

• On its front, it shows Octavian with a laurel crown and the legend IMP(erator) CAESAR - DIVI F(ilius) CO(n)S(ul) VI. On the reverse, we see him seated in the magistrate's chair, the sella curulis, holding a scroll in his right hand, with a document box on the ground to the left. The inscription reads LEGES ET IURA P(ublicae) R(ei) RESTITUT. It can be translated as "he restored laws and rights to the res publica" or "he restored the laws and rights of the res publica" - the ambiguity may well be deliberate

What does this coin tell us?

• He did not rush into setting up a hard and fast mode of governance . After Alexandria fell, he spent several months in the east and passed the winter on the island of Samos
• He had learned from the fate of his adoptive father, who had died at the hands of men whose relatives he had pardoned, and he had not taken many prisoners
• It was not a transformation that could be taken for granted, and many of his contemporaries, who had seen him in action as a murderous killer, were understandably far from trusting the appearance of a kinder, gentler version of the same man
• His previous behaviour still weighed heavily and, several decades later, Seneca wrote that Augustus was "moderate and merciful, but that was, to be sure, after having reddened the Actian sea with Roman blood - after, to be sure, smashing his fleets and those of his enemies in Sicily; and after, to be sure, the human sacrifices and proscriptions at Perusia"

Suetonius on Actium 17-18

What does he imply about Augustus' role at Actium?

• Focuses on the defeat of Cleopatra and Antony as a means of seizing power
• Antony was forced to commit suicide by Augustus (not so nice now is he)
• Cleopatra took her own life to avoid being paraded as a trophy of Augustus' triumph
• Caesarion was targeted for killing - he was Caesar's son by Cleopatra and so potentially had a claim as Caesar's heir
• He spared Antony's children (apart from the eldest) - he eliminated his rival's heir
• Implies that the battle was difficult when it wasn't

In what ways is his writing similar/different to that of the poets?

• He tells us that after Actium, Augustus' army mutinied and would not continue their service until they were paid their rewards - this shows that Augustus wasn't as loved as the poets claimed
• Mentions Mark Antony, and the fact that Augustus forced him to commit suicide - "Augustus forced him to commit suicide and viewed his corpse"
• Discusses the problems that Augustus faced after the battle (unlike the poets)
• Writes of the murder of Caesarion and Antony's eldest child - "The young Antony...he dragged from the image of the Deified Julius... and slew him... Caesarion too...he overtook in his flight, brought back, and put to death"
• Presents Augustus in a much worse light than the poets

What does he fail to mention about Actium?

• The fact that it was a civil war
• Only a very brief mention of the battle, no mention of Agrippa or any detail whatsoever - he focuses more on the aftermath and what Augustus does

Velleius on Actium 88.1- 89.4

What does he imply about Augustus' role at Actium?

• Mentions the involvement of Agrippa, and so tells us that Augustus did not win the battle on his own
• Glorifies Augustus and paints him as a hero - "Caesar returned to Rome to universal acclaim and huge crowds from young and old"
• "Man's crazed lust for warfare was dead and buried"
• "There was nothing that Augustus did not restore to the Republic, the people of Rome and the world at large"
• "Force was restored to the laws, authority to the courts, majesty to the Senate"
• He writes favourably because he benefited from emperors in his life

In what ways is his writing similar/different to that of the poets?

• He mentions that on Augustus' return he was almost assassinated by Lepidus' son, who had ambitions to supplant Augustus
• It was stopped by Augustus' confidant Maecaenas, who quietly stopped the coup
• This shows that not everybody supported Augustus' claim to power and so the term "universal acclaim" is shown to be inaccurate

What does he fail to mention about Actium?

• The battle itself is largely glossed over in favour of the description of the benefits
• No mention of Mark Antony or Cleopatra (although this is covered earlier on in Velleius' account in detail)
• No acknowledgement of the fact that it was a civil war

Tacitus Annals on Actium 1.1-2.1

What does he imply about Augustus' role at Actium?

• It was Augustus' means of gaining power - "he faced no opposition since the bravest souls had either died in battle or fallen victim to proscription"
• "he seduced the soldiers with gifts, the people with corn and everyone with the delights of peace"
• The word seduced implies manipulation
• "he gradually increased his power, arrogating to himself the functions of the Senate, the magistrates and the law"

In what ways is his writing different/similar to that of the poets?

• He doesn't glorify Augustus or the battle like the poets do
• The civil war element is emphasised, along with Augustus' use of the battle to cement his own power and rid himself of opposition
• He focuses more on the aftermath of Actium, rather than the battle itself
• Shows the sycophantic attitude of society - "the surviving nobles enjoyed a wealth and status that increased in proportion to their servility"
• "and having profited by the revolution, they preferred the present safety to the insecurity of the past"

What does he fail to mention about Actium?

• There is no mention of Cleopatra
• No mention of Agrippa
• He doesn't actually say what happened at the battle
• The consequences of the battle are not mentioned

Virgil on Actium - G38, 6.626-731

What does he say specifically about the role of Augustus at Actium?

• He mentions both Agrippa and Augustus
• "leading the Italians into battle"
• "The Penates and the Great Gods"
• "The Senate"
• Suggests that as Augustus is supported by everyone, Mark Antony would obviously be in the wrong
• "Riding in triple triumph through the walls of Rome...making to Italy's gods his vows everlasting"
• Makes Augustus look very good

What does he specifically say about the role of the gods?

• That the gods fought in the battle
• "Minerva and Venus brandished their armaments"
• "Mars raged"
• "grim furies"
• "Discord" and "Bellona"
• "Actium Apollo was drawing his bow"
• Vs Egyptian gods - "misbegotten" suggests a clash of civilisations
• Agrippa "with the wind and gods on his side"
• "Barking Anubis, ranged against Neptune"

How does he promote the official propaganda line?

• Antony is mentioned as a foreign traitor
• "Antony with his barbarian motley"
• Antony mentioned "while (for shame!) an Egyptian wife followed behind"

What does he fail to mention about Actium?

• No mention of Roman soldiers on Antony's side - only Egyptian soldiers - implied that any Roman soldiers would have been misguided by Cleopatra
• No mention of Agrippa's decisive role in outmanoeuvering the Egyptian fleet
• Antony and Cleopatra's suicide - all the dubious events that followed the battle are omitted
• No mention of the Romans who died in battle

Horace on Actium - 1.37

What does he say specifically about the role of Augustus at Actium?

• That Augustus was personally instrumental in the victory over Cleopatra "hawk against a gentle dove" and "Caesar pursued her from Italy"
• Paints Augustus as the defender of Rome "The maddened queen was plotting demented ruin of the capitol"

What does he specifically say about the role of the gods?

• Compares the victory festival to "feasts worthy of the Salii" (priests who worshiped the gods through festival and dance)
• "decks the couches of our gods" - compares the celebrations to a religious ceremony
• Implies that the gods were on Augustus' side and that he was fighting for the defence of Roman civilisation

How does he promote the official propaganda line?

• Exaggerates the importance of the victory - "draw out the Caecuban" (a very expensive wine that would be saved for the most special occasions
• Promotes the idea that if the Romans lost, it would be conquered by Egypt and Cleopatra - "planning our empire's funeral rites"
• Downplays the civil war aspect - contrasts the Caecuban wine with "Mareotic wine"
• "Doom laden monster"
• "Contaminated crew of men"

What does he fail to mention about Actium?

• No mention of Mark Antony
• The fact that many Roman lives were lost
• No mention of Agrippa
• The fact that Augustus used the victory to seize power

Background of Source Writers

• Horace and Virgil - contemporary poets who were commissioned to write favourable accounts of Actium (propagandistic)
• Tacitus - Later Senator from Gaul who survived the tyrannical reign of the emperor Domitian - there was no pressure for him to write favourably as he was born in a different time - personal prejudice may have made him harsher and more negative
• Velleius - Contemporary soldier who served under Augustus and his successor Tiberius- he became a Senator during their reigns - he writes favourably because of his own experiences
• Suetonius - Later biographer, Equestrian - secretary to emperor Hadrian and had access to the emperor's private archives
• Cassius Dio - Later Senator who experienced a much more monarchical princeps

The 'Myth' of Actium

• The conflict with Antony was a civil war, but it was spun that Cleopatra was the enemy, and controlling Antony. This made the people believe that the war was Rome vs Egypt
• Octavian used the victory at Actium to cement his control over Rome. he played it as a battle for Rome's survival, not a political conflict between two men. This painted Octavian as a hero rather than a dictator
• Agrippa had won the victory for Octavian and the battle had been easy. Octavian became one of Rome's greatest generals. The people felt as if the gods were supporting Octavian (especially because of the propoganda)
• Propaganda included coins that depicted the goddess Venus and showed Octavian in armour, as well as poems and dedicated buildings

The Naval Battle of Actium 31 BC

Aftermath of Philippi:

• After Julius Caesar's death in 44 BC, civil war broke out between the assassins (republicans like Brutus and Cassius) and the Caesarians, led by Mark Antony and Octavian
• Mark Antony, who was one of the best generals of his age and loved by his men, overcame the last republicans in 42 BC at Philippi, and started to reorganise the eastern half of the Roman empire while Octavian accepted the west.

Relations between the two men:

• Never friendly, but nevertheless worked together
• Mark Antony married Octavian's sister Octavia Minor, but married Cleopatra in Egypt

Declaration of War:

• This was the excuse that Octavian needed to declare war. In previous years he had annexed Dalmatia, which would offer him a land road from Italy and Gaul to the Balkans; and was almost certainly a preliminary to a war against Antony

Initial Plans:

• In 32 BC, Cleopatra and Antony started to sail to the northwest, where they wintered in Ephesus, to proceed to Greece and Epirus
• Antony's plan was to cross to Italy, but his advance was halted by Octavian
• Octavian's army now marched to the south and established a bridgehead at the Gulf of Ambracia, immediately north of the entrance

Numbers Per Side:

• Antony and Cleopatra had 230 vessels and 50,000 sailors. Their army could have been up to 23 legions
• Octavian had about 100 ships and 24 legions
• Agrippa had 300 war galleys

Agrippa manoeuvred to cut off Antony's line of communication and made it difficult to supply his army

Notes From Caesar Film

• Why was there chaos after the death of Caesar? There was a power vacuum and the Senate wasn't read to fill it
• What was the ambition of Antony? To take over
• Why was Octavian the perfect figure-head for securing the Republic? He was young and so he was assumed to be easy to manipulate, he was very rich, he was related to Caesar and he had inherited an army
• What were the words of Cicero regarding Octavian? Once the Republic is reformed he becomes dispensable 'praise him, honor him, get rid of him'
• Why was Octavian in the same difficulty as Caesar in 49 BC? He had an army. With it, he stood a chance so if he disbanded it he would die
• Why was the outmanoeuvering of Octavian important? It saved his life
• Why did Octavian unite with Mark Antony? To avenge Caesar and gain a powerful ally
• What happened at the Battle of Philippi? Cassius and Brutus were defeated and subsequently killed themselves, Lepidus was edged out and Octavian took the West while Antony took the East
• Who did Octavian marry in 39 BC and why? Scibonia, because she was well-born. He divorced her because she 'nagged' him
• When was Octavian able to turn the Senate in his favour? Antony married Cleopatra when he was already married to Octavian's sister and then he claimed that Caesar's son by Cleopatra (Caesarion) was Caesar's rightful heir
• What slanders were stated by Octavian against Mark Antony? That he embraced alien and barbaric customs and that he was bewitched and no longer Roman (making him a foreign threat)
• What happened at the Naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC? Agrippa won for Octavian, Mark Antony and Cleopatra killed themselves and Caesarion was killed
• Why was Actium won at a great cost? The Roman sea was stained with blood
• What was Octavian's dilemma? He had now become a tyrant, which is what he was acting to defeat
• How was the wealth of Egypt used? For lavish games and patronage

The Death of Caesar

• In February 44 BC, Julius Caesar made himself dictator for life. This, in effect, made him the king of Rome
• Only one month later, on the 15th March, he was assassinated in the forum by a group of Senators who, along with many other Romans, objected to one man holding so much power
• They believed that Rome should return to being a Republic ruled by the Senate
• After Caesar's murder, however, Rome remained under the control of Caesar's supporters, the leaders of the assassins, Gaius Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus, escaped to the Eastern provinces
• Leadership was taken up by the 'Second Triumvirate' of Rome, an agreement to share political power between three men who had been close allies of Caesar
• Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) had been Caesar's lieutenant and friend, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian) was Caesar's great-nephew and adopted son, and Marcus Lepidus had been one of Caesar's deputies
• The three men and their armies pursued Cassius and Brutus and defeated them at the battle of Philippi in Macedonia
• Cassius and Brutus afterwards committed suicide

Summary:

• What type of government did Rome have in 44 BC? A dictatorship
• What is the meaning of the Ides of March?  The middle of the month (the 15th) - the day that Caesar was assassinated
• Why did the Senators murder Caesar? They didn't want one man to have all the power
• Did the Senators get their wish? No, because Rome remained under the control of other powerful leaders
• Who were the leaders of Caesar's assassins? Cassius and Brutus
• Who were the members of the Second Triumvirate of Rome? Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus
• What relationship did they have with Caesar? Lieutenant and friend, adopted son, and deputy
• What happened at the battle of Philippi?  Cassius and Brutus were defeated
• What was the fate of the leaders of Caesar's assassins? They committed suicide

Caesar in Power

• Julius Caesar's army defeated Pompey's army on the plain of Pharsalus in the Roman province of Archaea (Macedonia). Pompey fled to Egypt, closely followed by Caesar and his army
• Egypt was an ancient civilisation in North Africa which at this time was ruled by King Ptolemy XIII. King Ptolemy murdered Pompey as a peace offering to Caesar
• Caesar remained in Egypt and fell in love with Cleopatra, King Ptolemy's half sister. Cleopatra and Caesar had a son named Caesarion
• Cleopatra was a rival for King Ptolemy's power in Egypt, which brought Caesar into conflict with Ptolemy. Caesar defeated Ptolemy and his army and made Cleopatra the queen of Egypt
• In reality, this meant that Egypt was now under the control of Rome. After winning more battles against Pompey's supporters in North Africa and the Eastern provinces, Caesar marched his army back to Rome in 45 BC
• Once he had assumed leadership in Rome, he did much to put Rome back in order after years of trouble and disorder
• He completely reconstructed and enlarged the Roman forum, the heart of all public life in Rome, and did much to alleviate poverty and unemployment in the city
• At the same time, however, he worked to increase his own personal power, which earned him the opposition of many people in Rome

Summary:

• What did Pompey do after his defeat by Caesar? He fled to Egypt
• Why did King Ptolemy XIII of Egypt have Pompey murdered? As a peace offering to Caesar
• Who was Cleopatra?  Ptolemy's half sister
• How did Caesar make Cleopatra queen of Egypt? By defeating Ptolemy and his allies
• Why did Caesar receive a wonderful reception when he returned to Rome in 45 BC? He had conquered France, Egypt and made the first expedition into Britain
• What did Caesar do to improve life in Rome after years of trouble and disorder? He made laws to help the impoverished
• What effect did Caesar have on others as he increased his own personal power? People began to oppose him

Caesar and the Civil War

• Julius Caesar was a skilled military leader and ambitious politician who had manipulated himself into a position of great popularity in Rome
• On Pompey's return from the East, Caesar, Pompey and Crassus formed what became known as "The first Triumvirate" - an agreement among the three men to share political power
• In 59 BC, under this agreement, Caesar was made governor of the Roman provinces in Northern Italy and Southern France. In Gaul, he embarked on a campaign of conquest - The Gallic War
• After eight years of fighting, Caesar's army had conquered Gaul (modern day France and Belgium), reducing the territory to a Roman province
• Caesar's quest for absolute power now made itself clear. In 49 BC, he led his army from Gaul down through Italy, across the Rubicon river to occupy Rome. This was an act of war because no commander was allowed to take his army outside of his own province
• By this time, Crassus had been killed fighting in Mesopotamia. Only Pompey remained as Caesar's rival for power. Pompey and his supporters retreated across the Adriatic sea to the Balkans
• Caesar did not have the Senate's approval to become Consul, so like Sulla before him, he declared himself dictator of Rome
• He then set out after his enemy, Pompey

Summary:

• How had Caesar become popular? He was a skilled general , politician and manipulator
• Who were the members of the First Triumvirate? Caesar, Pompey and Crassus
• What is the modern day European country that was Gaul? France and Belgium
• What military successes did Caesar achieve? He conquered Gaul and made the first expedition into Britain
• Why was Caesar's action of crossing the Rubicon with his troops an act of war? It was illegal to cross into Italy with an army
• How did Pompey react to Caesar's arrival in Italy? He fled Rome and retreated to the Balkans
• What did Caesar's declaration of himself as dictator of Rome mean to the Republic? It ended the Republic and gave Caesar complete control
• Why was Caesar determined to destroy Pompey and his army? Because he was the last resistance

Occupations at the time:

• Sandalmaker
• Smiths for copper, silver, bronze, gold and iron
• Potter
• Glass-bowlers
• Stonemason
• Carpenter
• Animal bones and horns were made into combs, needles, handles etc

Beginnings of Political Revolution

• Two hundred years of expansion had brought many changes to Roman society and politics. The wealthy patricians had strengthened their hold on power, and the Senate had become corrupt and self-serving
• Some members of the nobility began to see the need for political reforms to make allowances for the growing number of increasingly impoverished citizens
• The Gracchus brothers, Tiberius and Gaius tried to introduce measures to give some land back to the peasant farmers, reduce the price of food and alleviate Rome's overcrowding
• However, these reforms were very unpopular with the wealthy, and the brothers were murdered along with hundreds of their supporters
• When Roman territory was threatened with invasion by Germanic and Celtic tribes in 109 BC, the Senate and army were unable to deal with the situation because of Rome's internal instability
• Gaius Marius was appointed military commander, he reformed the army by recruiting many of the poorer citizens and had them well trained and equipped
• Once the wars were over, the men looked to their commander for a reward in the form of land of their own. From now on, instead of fighting for Rome, commanders and their armies banded together in pursuit of their own rewards
• As the Senate collapsed further into inefficiency and corruption, power in Rome became the play thing of popular, powerful military generals

• What had the patricians achieved in 200 years? Stengthened political power in the Senate
• Rome had been governed by the Senate, made up of patricians. They were voted into office each year by an Assembly of citizens. Later, some ordinary citizens were able to have their say. What was the Senate like after 200 years? Corrupt and self-serving
• Why did some patricians see a need for political reforms? The increasing number of impoverished citizens
• What reforms did Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus try to introduce? The reduction of food prices and the giving of land to impoverished farmers - reducing population as a result
• How did some wealthy people react?  They murdered the Gracchus brothers
• Why was Roman territory vulnerable to attack from the northern tribes in 109 BC? There was no one to lead
• How were the poor citizens employed at this time? In the army
• How did the attitude of these people change after the wars? The poor banded together to get their own way along with the military
• Into whose hands did power in Rome begin to fall? Powerful military generals

Law and order

• As Rome became more powerful under the Republic, the legal system became more complicated
• A huge code of laws were made by the Senate and groups of Roman citizens
• The laws were sometimes vague. Judges at various trials had to interpret these laws and write their judgements
• As time went by, the laws and punishments began to vary from one province to another
• When Augustus became emperor, the legal system became centralised (e.g more power to the emperor)
• For fraud and theft, the punishment was a fine
• For more serious crimes punishments included: exile, loss of Roman citizenship, or labour in the mines or the galleys
• Death by beheading. stoning or crucifixion awaited those found guilty of desertion from the army or treason

Conquest of the Mediterranean

• Carthage was a North African city whose ships controlled most of the western Mediterranean sea. Its power and wealth came from its position at the centre of all the important trade routes
• It was not a very warlike state , but it did have territory in Spain and Sardinia, and controlled the island of Sicily
• It was over Sicily that Rome came in direct confrontation with Carthage. The first Punic war lasted 23 years ('Punic' was the Roman word for Carthaginian)
• When the war began, Rome had very little skill in naval warfare due to lack of experience. Despite this, Rome quickly built fleets of ships
• Rome defeated Carthage in a long series of sea battles around Sicily
• At that time, tactics for war at sea were similar to those on land. Soldiers would board the enemy's ships and fight on the deck
• The Romans invented a boarding bridge for this very purpose
• Rome defeated Carthage in 241 BC and won possession of Sicily, but the Carthaginians began planning a new attack on Rome from their base in Spain
• The Carthaginians launched a second war against Rome in 218 BC
• The leader of this force was Hannibal, a clever young general
• From Carthaginian territory in Spain, he marched his 26,000 troops and 38 elephants over the Alps into Italy
• He won many battles against the larger Roman army, including the famous battles of Trasimene and Cannae
• Hannibal's army formed alliances with Celtic tribes in the North of Italy, and some of Rome's former allies in the South
• Hannibal fought against the Romans for 16 years, causing fear and destruction. However, Roman forces began to take the upper hand under the leadership of General Quintus Fabius Maximus
• Without ever capturing Rome itself, Hannibal was forced to return to Carthage to defend it against a Roman counter-attack
• Hannibal was defeated by the Roman general Scipio at the battle of Zama in 202 BC. Carthaginian power was destroyed
• To make sure, Rome razed the city to the ground and massacred its inhabitants in 146 BC. Carthage became the Roman province of Africa, and Carthage territory in Spain also came under Roman control
• While Rome was fighting the second Punic war against Hannibal, it also came into conflict with countries in the East Mediterranean
• King Philip V of Macedonia formed an alliance with Hannibal and had ambitions to rule the Dalmation coast, Rome went to war with Philip's armies and won major victories in 197 BC
• Thirty years later, Rome defeated the armies of Philip's son, Perseus, and Macedonia was finally conquered 
• Rome went to war with Greece too, and destroyed the major city of Corinth
• After their defeat, Greece and Macedonia together became the Roman province of Achaea
• Another country in the area, Pergamum (today part of Turkey), became the Roman province of Asia when its king died and left his kingdom to Rome in his will
• At home in Italy too, Rome continued expanding its territory
• The Northern parts of Italy became the Roman province of Gallia Cisalpina ('Gaul-this-side-of-the-Alps') after the Celtic tribes were defeated

Summary:

• On which Continent was Carthage? Africa
• Why was it wealthy and powerful? It's position at the centre of  trade routes
• In what areas did Carthage control territory? Spain, Sardinia, the island of  Sicily
• Why did Rome come in conflict with Carthage? Over the control of Sicily
• Why were the wars called the Punic wars? It was the Roman word for Carthaginian
• From whom did Rome copy their ship building methods? The Carthaginians
• When did the Romans finally defeat the Carthaginians? What was their prize? Possession of Sicily in 241 BC
• What were the tactics of war at sea at the time? Board the opponent's ships and fight on the decks
• Who led the second Punic war against Rome? Hannibal
• What became so famous about his tactics of war? He had 38 elephants
• What alliances strengthened Hannibal's position against Rome? The Celtics in the North and  Rome's former allies
• What Roman general finally lead to Hannibal's defeat? Scipio
• Why was Hannibal forced to return to Carthage without capturing Rome? To defend against a Roman counter attack
• How did Rome finally ensure the defeat of Carthage? They razed the city to the ground and massacred the people in 146 BC
• With whom did Hannibal form an alliance in Macedonia? Philip
• In what year did Rome conquer Macedonia? 197 BC
• With what other great civilisation did Rome go to war in the East? Greece
• What is the modern Asia Minor country that was Pergamum? Turkey
• What areas were occupied by Rome by about 100 BC? Greece, Macedonia, Africa, Spain, Sardinia and Sicily

Historical Background of Rome

• About 2,750 years ago, some bands of people moved from the North, into the Italian peninsula. They settled in several small villages that grew together to form Rome, the city that eventually built the empire
• The people who founded Rome were farmers and shepherds. Their struggles with neighbouring groups of people shaped a believe in duty, discipline, and patriotism. Roman armies grew into a strong fighting force
• Rome's founders also recognised that they could use new ideas from more advanced civilisations. Early in their history they came into contact with the Greeks, who had built settlements on the Italian peninsula. Roman leaders ordered careful studies of the Greek ideas, architecture and government
• The powerful Roman army defeated one enemy after another
• Soldiers were trained in the use of slings, javelins, spears and swords. These forces were divided into legions, army units that numbered about 6,000 men each
• The legions were divided into smaller units that could be moved around swiftly. This freedom of movement usually gave Roman forces an advantage over the massed troops of its enemies
• Rome began to build its empire in Italy. Roman forces battled rivals for control of the peninsula
• By 264 BC, Rome commanded the Italian peninsula. Rome then turned to conquests in North Africa, Spain, Gaul (modern day France), Greece, and the lands at the eastern ends of the Mediterranean
• Rome organised its foreign lands into provinces. Each was headed by a governor who directed tax collections and organised the defense of the province
• The new rulers did not try to change local customs, religions, or government. This policy made Roman dominion less painful to the conquered people