Provincial Challenges: Wars and Threats Under the Flavians

 Judea - The Jewish Revolt 66-70 AD

• This was an ongoing conflict that began in 66 AD and lasted until the first year of Vespasian's reign in 70 AD
• As we have seen, Vespasian was sent out by Nero to suppress the Jewish Revolt
• The revolt was largely a result of nationalist tensions, with the Jews unable to see the tangible benefits of Roman rule and thus were opposed to the process of Romanisation that occurred elsewhere
• The culmination of the conflict occurred in 70 AD with the siege of Jerusalem, led by Titus. This brought much material wealth to Rome (allowing the Flavians to build projects such as the Colosseum) and became of great propaganda value to Vespasian and Titus

Agricola in Britain - 78-84 AD

• Britain proved both a military and political challenge for the Flavians
• The desire to maintain military auctoritas was counterweighted by a desire to successfully and effectively conduct a war in Britain
• Insurgency groups within Britain were nothing new, but they were being actively supported by tribes beyond Roman control in Scotland and Ireland
• Command of a campaign of military suppression was entrusted to Gnaeus Agricola, Tacitus' father-in-law
• The campaign would be a great success, but Agricola's actions were undermined by Domitian, who feared the growing popularity and influence Agricola gained from his conquest

The Chatti in Germany, C.85 AD

• This campaign seems to have been spurred on more because of Domitian's desire for military glory rather than any necessity
• Suetonius and Dio, who provide the most extant accounts of the campaign, are very vague in detail and thus are problematic
• They do however provide us with some details on the motives behind the campaign, as well as how the conquest was utilised by Domitian for propaganda purposes
• Interestingly, in 89 AD there was a revolt by the governor of Upper Germany, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, but this came to nothing also after weather prevented Saturninus from receiving reinforcements from the Germanic tribes on the far side of the Rhine

The Danube and the Dacians - 86-7 AD

• The Dacians proved a much more formidable threat to the Romans and Domitian's reign
• These were a tribe that occupied what is modern-day Romania
• In 85/6 AD they crossed the Danube and raided the province of Moesia (modern day Serbia, Kosovo), even managing to kill the governor and annihilate the 5th legion "Alaudae"
• Domitian despatched an equestrian, Cornelius Fuscus, to deal with the revolt, but after early successes, his army was ambushed and annihilated, with Fuscus killed
• Eventually, after a series of indecisive battles, the Romans and Dacians came to a generally inconclusive peace agreement
• This led to the emperor Trajan leading a series of campaigns in 101-2 AD to finally subdue the tribe

Activity

• Problems face by the Romans
• Judaea 66-70 AD
• Combination of religious and political fanaticism - fervent nationalistic pride amongst the Jewish people that made them resent imperial rule
• Nationalism meant that the Jewish people could not see the benefits of Imperial Rule
• Several successive revolts to try and resist Romanisation - made the province notoriously difficult to manage
• The nationalists saw foreign domination as an unqualified evil, to be resisted, and, unlike the majority of provincials elsewhere, could not recognise the benefits of Roman rule, not even on the material level of aqueducts, for example
• Britain 78-84 AD
• Cassius Dio: "war broke out again in Britain, the role of Agricola was to overrun the whole extent of enemy territory there"
• Rebellions originating from Scotland threatened Roman territories in Britain, motivated a full-scale invasion to eliminate the threat. As Dio writes, "war broke out again in Britain" (resistance was nothing new)
• Romans wished to survey the full island and ascertain its size
• Germany 85 AD
• The Chatti tribe had been a long term low-level nuisance to Roman control of the region. Though the campaign was still seen as "quite unjustified by military necessity" by Suetonius
• Once Domitian left there was a revolt led by Antonius Saturninus, governor of lower Germany (Plutarch, Suetonius) - suggest the army were not very loyal to Domitian
• Dacia 86-7 AD
• A tribe inhabiting a region that coincides roughly with modern Romania
• Cassius Dio says the "Greatest war in this period was against the Dacians"
• It appears that the Dacians invaded Moesia, perhaps fearing oppression by Domitian
• The Dacians enjoyed considerable success, killing the governor of Moesia, Oppius Sabinus and defeating the Roman legion garrisoned there
• Role of the Emperor/Other Individuals
• Judaea 66-70 AD
• Vespasian and Titus - Suetonius "sent out by Nero" before the civil war
• After Vespasian became emperor, Titus took over the Jewish legions whilst Vespasian dealt with the issues of Civil War
• Titus personally led the siege and capture of Jerusalem in 70 AD
• Cassius Dio: Titus first tried diplomacy to quell the revolt "but when this failed he resorted to military action"
• Britain 78-84 AD
• Agricola, Tacitus' father-in-law, is appointed as governor to command the army
• Tacitus: "popular opinion demanded Agricola as general, as everyone compared his fortitude and mettle with the lethargy of others"
• Agricola achieved great fame with his success, Tacitus tells us that Domitian became concerned: "it was a source of great fear to him that names of private individuals should be raised above the emperor" and "Domitian made his best effort to store up all his anger until Agricola's reputation and fame died down"
• Germany 85 AD
• Dio states that Domitian returned "never having set eyes on any warfare". Nevertheless, Domitian saw the campaign as important; he took the title Germanicus in 83 and immortalised it with coins. Tacitus compares this to Agricola, whose victory was praiseworthy while Domitian's was "a false triumph"
• Cassius Dio - one of Domitian's least attractive qualities was that he longed to be flattered, and he despised both those who flattered him and those that didn't
• Dacia 86-7 AD
• Outcome
• Britain 78-84 AD
• Germany 85 AD
• Dacia 86-7 AD

Propaganda and the Principate: The Flavians

 The Importance of Propaganda

• It could easily be argued that the Flavians created the most diverse and widespread propaganda campaign of any emperors, including Augustus
• Coinage, Architecture, Statues, Poetry, Festivals, Games, Triumphs, Religion and the Imperial Cult were all utilised to help cement the Flavian dynasty's political and social position within Rome
• The first attempts at widespread propaganda were instituted very early in Vespasian's reign, and both Titus and Domitian continued their father's campaign to ensure continued support for the Flavians

Early Religious Propaganda

• The earliest hints at propaganda come from supposed miracles that took place before Vespasian's bid for power
• Suetonius (Vespasian, 5) relates a number of portents:
• An oak tree on the Flavian estate sacred to Mars sprouted an enormous branch the day of Vespasian's birth
• When Caligula ordered Vespasian's toga be filled with mud during his tenure as Aedile, it was interpreted that one day the earth would come under his protection
• A stray once brought him a human hand it had found on a cross-road and left it under Vespasian's table whilst he ate breakfast (Manus = hand, oten used as a symbol of power)
• Another time a frenzied Ox burst into the dining hall but calmed at Vespasian's feet
• Nero once had a dream where he drove the sacred chariot of Jupiter (used in triumphs) to Vespasian's house
• A statue of Julius Caesar during the civil wars turned to face the east on it's own accord
• At the battle of Bedriacum two eagles were seen fighting overhead, before a third from the east came and drove both away
• Vespasian visited an oracle of the god Carmel in Judaea, who promised that whatever he planned or wished would be granted to him, whilst Josephus declared that the man who released him would be emperor (which ended up being Vespasian)

Early Religious Propaganda

• Though Suetonius is keen to emphasise that Vespasian and his family laughed at such religious notions, Tacitus suggests they were actively promoted by the Flavians themselves to help legitimize their position:
• "It may be that mysterious prophecies were already circulating, and that portents and oracles promised Vespasian and his sons the purple, but it was only after the rise of the Flavians that we Romans believed in such stories" - Tacitus
• Nor did everyone actively support these claims, Dio claims that Vespasian publicly healed blind men with his touch whilst in Egypt. but
• "the people of Alexandria gave him no sign of welcome; rather, they totally detested him, so much so that both privately and in public they poked fun and hurled abuse at him. They had expected to reap great rewards from having been the first to declare him emperor;" instead, they got nothing and instead had extra taxes heaped upon them" - Cassius Dio

Religious Propaganda in Rome

• In Rome the Flavians seem to have earned more immediate success with their religious propaganda:
• After celebrating the Judaean triumph Vespasian closed the Temple of Janus, the first emperor to do so since Augustus
• All three became the Pontifex Maximus during their reigns, centralising themselves in Rome's religious sphere
• Vespasian took the Censorship temporarily, whilst Domitian took the role in perpetuita
• The temples on the Capitoline Hill were restored and expanded, where "Vespasian was the first to lend a hand in clearing away the debris and carried some of it off on his own head" (Suetonius)
• The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, destroyed in the civil war, was rebuilt by Vespasian, burnt down again in 80 AD during the fire in Titus' reign and was rebuilt AGAIN by Domitian
• Vespasian was able to extend the Pomerium the sacred boundary of Rome, copying the model set by Augustus and Claudius

Art and Architecture

• Following the Augustan model of mass propagandistic messages through architecture, the Flavians built on an unprecedented scale to propagate their power to the people
• This is most famously reflected in the Colosseum, the Flavian Amphitheatre, built on the former site of Nero's Domus Aurea
• This however is just the tip of the iceberg, and all three Flavians completed works to varying success

Building Projects Activity

Complete the table

Coinage, Inscriptions

• Coinage was another easy means of disseminating images of the Flavians' achievements to the Roman people, particularly in the provinces of the emperors was harder to spread
• A few inscriptions found in Rome attest to further attempts to spread the Flavians' message. Though the sparsity of these coupled with the illiteracy of most Romans mean these were not used as thoroughly as other mediums

Poetry

• The reign of the Flavians also allowed for the production of a wide range of literature, known as the Silver Age of Latin literature (Golden Age is under Augustus)
• Tacitus, Suetonius, Pliny, Juvenal, Martial and many others we have studied all lived during the reign of the Flavians
• Unlike Augustus, there was not a centralised patronage of writers. Instead it is more likely the writers under the Flavian age were compelled to write favourably through fear/favours etc
• Some key writes linked to Flavian propaganda:
• Statius: c.45-96 AD - a poet who competed many times under the poetic competitions of Domitian, notably earning first prize in the Alban Festival and being handed the golden crown by Domitian himself. Other sources mention him being present at Domitian's banquets so clearly he was favoured by the Princeps
• Silius Italicus: c.28-103 AD - enjoyed a political career under the Julio-Claudians as a pro-Principate politician but was admired among his contemporaries for this rhetorical style and high education, and was often compared to Virgil
• Martial: c.38-102 AD - Originally from Spain, he moved to Rome inspired by the success of his countrymen, such as Seneca. Rich Roman patrons financed his works and Martial enjoyed relative popularity among the educated in Rome

Success of the Flavian Propaganda Machine?

• It is difficult to judge the success of Flavian propaganda. Some writers such as Josephus and the poets are more than laudatory towards the emperors. Others such as Tacitus and Dio are generally more pessimistic
• Perhaps the testament of later writers hint at the longevity of their achievements in the Roman mind
• Orosius, a Christian historian writing in the 5th century AD spoke of Vespasian and Titus:
• "Then, to quote the words of Cornelius Tacitus, when Augustus was old. Janus was opened once again,since fresh conquests were sought along the outer boundaries of the world, often profitably, but sometimes at considerable cost, right until the reign of Vespasian. This is according to Tacitus. But then the city of Jerusalem was captured and overthrown, as the prophets had foretold, and the Jews were eliminated by Titus, who had been chosen by God's judgement to avenge the blood of the Lord Jesus Christ. He celebrated a triumph with his father Vespasian and closed the gates of Janus"

Activity