Year of the Four Emperors 68-9 AD

Aftermath of the Death of Nero

• Nero, tyrant of the Roman world, was dead
• This should have been a cause for celebration, but - as in all cases of political upheaval - strife quickly arose between different factions in Rome...
• Tacitus [Histories, 1.2] gives us his impression of the period:
• "I am entering on the history of a period rich in disasters, frightened in its wars, torn by civil strife, and even in peace full of horrors."
• Generals in the provinces, seeing Nero fall at the hands of Galba and the Senate, began to comprehend a new reality about the Roman world:
• "for now had been divulged that secret of the empure, that emperors could be made elsewhere than at Rome" - [Tac, Hist, 1.4]
• So begins the "Year of the Four Emperors", the first civil war since the days of Augustus...

Galba's Bid for Power

• When Gaius Julius Vindex' revolt had failed in Gaul at the battle of Vesontio, Galba's bid for power may have seemed tenuous
• However, news was quickly brought to him that the Praetorian Guard and Senate had abandoned Nero and proclaimed for Galba
• Trusting also in support from the government of Lusitania (Portugal), Otho, Galba set out for Rome at the beginning of July 68 AD
• However, Galba placed too much trust in the Senate's support to seize power, assuming that the support from this group alone would be enough to guarantee his position
• Moreover, his old fashioned discipline was at odds with the army at this time, whose generals tended to be more good-humoured and indulgent

Nero's Death: Rome's Reaction

Tacitus gives us a useful summary of the reactions of different areas of the empire to the death of Nero and accession of Galba:

Tacitus, the Histories:

• 1.4.5 - Reactions in Rome - How did different groups react to Nero's death?
• "The death of Nero had been welcomed initially by a surge of relief"
• However, it also evoked a variety of emotions in the Senate, the populace and the garrison of the capital, as well as in all the many legions and legionary commanders
• "A well hidden secret of the Principate had been revealed: it was possible, it seemed, for am emperor to be chosen outside of Rome"
• The Senators were delighted and "promptly permitted themselves considerable freedom of speech in their negotiations with an emperor who was new to his task and absent from the capital"
• "The leading members of the equestrian order were hardly less gratified than the Senators"
• "Hopes were raised among respectable middle-class Romans who had ties of duty towards the great families, as among the dependents and freedmen of condemned persons and exile"
• "The riff-raff haunting the circus and theatres, and the scum of the slave population, or those spendthrifts and bankrupts who had been the recipients of Nero's degrading charity were filled with gloom and hungry for the latest rumours"
• "The city garrison...had a long tradition of sworn allegiance to the Caesars, and had been induced to desert Nero more by cunning and suggestion than from any inclination of its own"
• The bounty promised for deserting Nero was refused "I select my troops, I do not buy them"
• 1.8-10 - Reactions in the Empire - How did each province react to Nero's death?
• Britain
• Had no hard feelings towards Galba - had learned to keep their hatred for the enemy
• Spain
• Governed by Cluvius Rufus - "tried in the arts of peace, untried in war" - not a competent military general
• Africa
• Clodius Macer - terrible governor, executed by Galba - the people were "content with any kind of emperor" because he was so bad
• Germany
• Was of the most important (and the biggest threat), because of the size of the legions, and their expertise
• Upper Germany:
• Fonteius Capito - had been assassinated by Galba
• Galba sends out Flaccus who "lacked personality and prestige" and so couldn't control the soldiers
• Lower Germany:
• Verginius - been replaced by Galba because the Germanic legions had tried to offer him the throne
• Sent out Aulus Vitellius who had no qualifications other than the fact that his father had held three consulships
• Egypt
• was "indifferent to law and ignorant to civil government" - so was left under the control of the imperial house, governed by an equestrian named Tiberius Alexander
• Egypt's importance lies in its grain supply, and its difficulty to access
• Judaea
• Under the control of Vespasian. The Jews had revolted and Vespasian had been sent by Nero to quash it. Vespasian had sent Titus back to Rome to swear fealty to Galba
• Mauritania, Raetia, Noricum, Thrace (north Africa and part of the Balkans)
• "took their cue from the various armies near them, and were driven willy-nilly into support or hostility by the contact of more powerful influences"
• Gallic Provinces
• Communities closest to military districts in Germany were treated harshly and had territory taken from them, whilst others were granted prospects of tax relief
• Syria
• The governor was Licinius Mucianus - removed to remote part of Asia because he had angered Claudius "a compound of self-indulgence and energy, courtesy and arrogance, good and evil...remarkable when he put his mind to something" - Syria had 4 legions and so could pose a threat
• Licinius Mucianus was "more congenial to make an emperor than be one"

Danger of his position

• Galba's march to Rome exemplifies the tenuous position he was in
• Tacitus' narrative of the journey is dominated by executions, such as Clodius Macer and Fonteius Capito, on suspicion they were plotting against him
• He also disposed of Nymphidius Sabinus, Prefect of the Praetorians, who had attempted to seize the Principate himself, only to be stopped by his troops
• The influence he was under by Titus Vinius and Cornelius Laco, as well as his freedman Icelus, shows how feeble Galba was as an emperor
• By the time Galba therefore reached Rome in late September of 68 AD, much of the popularity he enjoyed had begun to erode

Galba's Propaganda

Galba did however try to utilise propaganda to secure his position, a number of coins were commissioned in late 68 AD that attempt to persuade the Romans of the benefits of his rule

Study the coinage Galba commissioned in 68/69 AD:

1. Looking at these examples, what messages was Galba trying to convey to the Roman people about his rule?
1. First coin
• Obverse - "IMP GALBA" - Galba, Emperor, crowned with a laurel wreath
• Laurel wreath is a sign of victory
• Reverse - Roma, in military dress, advancing with victory on globe "ROMA RENASCENS" - Roma rises again
• "Roma rises" makes the people feel included and appeals to conservatism (basically MAGA but MRGA)
• Sends the message that Rome has been ruled poorly but Galba has come to save the day
2. Second coin
• Obverse - Galba, laureate head "Servius Galba, Emperor"
• Reverse - Concordia (goddess of harmony), standing holding olive branch and cornucopia - "CONCORDIA PROVINCIALIS" - "Harmony of the provinces"
• Olive branch = peace
• Cornucopia = plenty
3. Third coin
• Obverse "IMP GALBA" - Galba, emperor, crowned with a laurel wreath, globe underneath
• Reverse - Roma standing and holding spear, foot at globe "ROMA VICTRIX" - Roma victorious
• Rome back on top - making a comeback
2. Why might he have chosen these particular messages?
• To big himself up and gain favour from the people as he was to be the hero to save them and make Rome great again
3. Why do you think he utilised coinage to spread his propaganda?
• Coins spread all over the world and were used by everyone

Galba's Declining Popularity

However, propaganda was not enough to secure his position, and quickly his relations with different groups in Rome eroded...

Tacitus, Histories,

• 1.5 - Galba's relationship with the Praetorians
• 1.6-7 - influences on Galba and threats to his power

Suetonius, Galba,

• 11 - Galba's reaction to Nero's death
• 12-14 - examples of Galba's character and influences on him
• 15-16 - His policies as emperor and why they were unpopular
• 22 - Further influences on Galba

1. Why did Galba's popularity decline, both at Rome and in the provinces?
• Tacitus - Galba showed a violent nature - murdered any potential threats without a right to trial - often killed the conspirator's family too - Cruel/Tyrannical
• Suetonius - Annulled all rewards given out by Nero - only allowing them to retain 1/10th of the original sum and forced people to pay back the rest BUT he allowed everything for his friends and supporters "taxes here, exemptions there, an innocent party accused here, a culprit excused there - Inconsistent/Nepotistic
• Suetonius - Halotus and Tigellinus, two of Nero's most hated agents, were not brought to justice, and Tigellinus was defended by an imperial edict - Tone-deaf/Biased
• Suetonius - Restricted appointments of all Senators and Equestrians to two year periods, and would only choose those he thought would refuse the position
• Suetonius - He was greedy and miserly - when the people of Tarraco offered him a golden crown from the ancient temple of Jupiter (described as weighing 15lbs), he had it melted down and as it was 3 ounces light, made them pay the difference - Greedy and Miserly
• Suetonius - The provincials who were the slowest to support him were taxed the heaviest - Petty
2. Why did Galba lose the support of the Praetorians?
• Tacitus and Suetonius - he broke his promise to pay the Praetorians for abandoning Nero "I levy my troops, I do not buy them" (Suet) - Manipulative
• Tacitus - He killed the Praetorian Prefect Nymphidius Sabinus, and then dismissed many for being accomplices
• He also dismissed the German bodyguards, who had always remained loyal - Paranoid
3. What characteristics can we identify in Galba as emperor?
• Cruel
• Tyrannical
• Inconsistent
• Nepotistic
• Tone-deaf
• Biased
• Greedy
• Miserly
• Petty
• Manipulative
• Paranoid
4. What influence did others have on Galba? What problems did this cause?
5. What threats did Galba face to his power?

The Rise of Otho

• The significance of Galba's refusal to pay Donatives to the troops emphasises how out of touch Galba was with recent military practices, but it also highlights how loyalty with the army was secured now in Rome, to the highest bidder

However Galba's greatest failure was to not believe that others would try to attempt what he had done: seize the imperial throne

In particular, he underestimated the ambitions of his ally, Marcus Salvius Otho

• Tacitus, 1.13, Suetonius, Otho, 5
• According to the sources what were Otho's ambitions?
• Suetonius - Otho was seeking revenge for Nero - he used to be one of his close friends
• Tacitus + Suetonius - Otho hoped through his loyalty to Galba to be rewarded with adoption, and so was thoroughly disappointed when Galba adopted Piso
• Suetonius - Otho was heavily in debt and hoped becoming emperor would save him
• Tacitus - Otho earned the support of the Praetorian Cohorts and Nero's courtiers - whom he used to be friends with
• Tacitus 1.14, 1.18-22, Suetonius, Galba, 17
• Who did Galba pick as his successor? How did the soldiers react to this appointment and why?
• Suetonius - Galba thought his unpopularity was due to his age and childlessness, so he picked a young heir in Piso
• Tacitus + Suetonius - The soldiers' reaction was lukewarm because he had not promised any donation
• Tacitus - The Senate congratulated Piso on his adoption/appointment, either because of their associations with Laco, who had proposed Piso, or because of fear of reprisal once Piso became emperor
• Tacitus 1.27-28, 1.41-43, Suetonius, Otho, 6, Suetonius, Galba, 20
• Outline how Otho overthrew Galba, what groups were most important in this coup?
• Suetonius - Otho originally planned to capture Galba at dinner shortly after Piso's adoption, but the same cohorts that were on guard for the deaths of Caligula and Nero were on standby that day, and did not want to further sully their reputation
• Tacitus + Suetonius - Otho planned the coup for 15th January, when Galba and Piso were sacrificing in the Temple of Apollo. Meanwhile Otho posted his conspirators in the forum near the Temple of Saturn
• Tacitus - When Otho saww the small number of soldier (23) he was disappointed that more hadn't come
• Tacitus + Suetonius - Otho excused himself from Galba with a watchword "the architects are here" and was taken to the Praetorian barracks
• There are two accounts of Galba's demise:
• Tacitus - He groveled and promised the bounties "I am yours, you are mine"
• Suetonius - "most accounts agree" - he bared his neck and told the soldiers to do the deed
• Tacitus - Piso escapes the Forum and flees to a nearby temple, but is pursued by two centurions. They drag him outside and kill him.
• Suetonius - A soldier cut of Galba's head and the praetorians paraded around with it on a pike
• Suetonius, Otho, 8
• What relationship did Otho have with the Praetorian Guard?
• Suetonius - "the Praetorians gave such unequivocal proof of their faithfulness to Otho that it almost involved the massacre of the Senate"
• Praetorians saw some sailors moving weapons at the docks and assumed the Senate was leading a coup
• They burst into the palace, murdered the Tribunes who tried to stop them and found Otho quietly having dinner (they really wanted that bounty)
• Sunk cost fallacy
• What challenges did he immediately face upon becoming emperor?
• Suetonius - Immediate challenge was Germany - the soldiers had taken an oath of allegiance to Vitellius
• Otho sent an official deputation to Germany from the Senate ordering the Germanic legions to stand down because an emperor had already been appointed
• He sent a private letter to Vitellius, promising him a share of the empire
• BUT - Vitellius' armies were already on their way to Italy - "war was inevitable"

Otho's Accession

Galba's end came on the 15th January, 69 AD, only five days after Piso's adoption

• Whilst Galba offered sacrifices in front of the Temple of Palatine Apollo, Otho made excuses to leave and headed to the Praetorian camp to seek proclamation as emperor
• Their response was... lukewarm
• "Their mood may be summed up thus; a shocking crime was committed on the unscrupulous initiative of a few individuals, with the blessing of more, and amid the passive acquiescence of all" - Tacitus, Histories, 28
• This could be used to summarise the entire civil war; the people themselves were not leaders of revolts, and essentially acted only when the status quo was no longer beneficial
• This may help to explain the rise of the military's importance in the making and breaking of emperors
• "After this (the killing of Galba), the troops got their way with everything... theft or taking on jobs as servants were the means by which they paid for time off... finally, when the money had given out they returned to their units in an idle and unhealthy state, reduced from affluence to poverty and from vigour to sloth. This process was repeated interminably, and the same destitution and indiscipline ruined man after man, driving them herd-like down the slope that leads to mutiny and civil war" - Tacitus, Histories, 1.46