Claudius' Wives and Freedmen: Trouble in the Imperial Court

Claudius' Personal Problems
Despite Claudius' seemingly stable and prosperous reign, problems within the Imperial Court ultimately defined his rule:
"One might say that everything Claudius did throughout his reign was dictated by his wives and freedmen: he practically always obeyed their whims rather than his own judgement" - Suetonius, Claudius, 25
It would be the rampant excesses and abuses of Claudius' own wives and freedmen that would cause him the most misery during his reign, and ultimately bring about his downfall

Claudius' Wives
Claudius had four wives in his life. Two were before he was emperor, and two during:

• Messalina:
• Related to Augustus on both sides of her family, her marriage to Claudius had been arranged during Caligula's reign. Together they had a son, Britannicus, and a daughter, Octavia
• Agrippina the Younger:
• Sister to Caligula. She was Claudius' niece. She had a child from a previous marriage, Domitius Ahenobarbus - later called Nero

Claudius' Freedmen

• A freedman (or freedwoman) was a freed slave in Ancient Rome
• When freed, they were given certain (limited) rights, and took on the name of their former masters
• A freedman was always socially considered lower than a free citizen, however freedmen could become considerably rich and influential depending on the status of their former masters
• A freedman to the emperor, despite being only socially above a slave, would be richer and more influential than most people in Rome, due to their proximity and connections to the emperor
• The sources all agree that the freedmen of the Imperial court wielded considerable influence during Claudius' reign, effectively acting as his personal secretariat and advisors. These were:
• Callistus - in charge on imperial petitions
• Narcissus - Chief Secretary in charge of imperial correspondences
• Pallas - imperial treasurer and chief accountant

The "Reign of Messalina"

• When Valerius Messalina and Claudius married at the arrangement of Caligula, she was fourteen and he was over thirty years her senior
• It is relatively obvious to assume therefore that their marriage was not one of genuine love but rather a simple political arrangement
• Indeed the sources depict Messalina as everything but a faithful wife. She became known for her sexual promiscuity and excess, as well as her fierce ambitions and dangerous jealousy of anyone who opposed her
• Being the mother of Claudius' sole male heir in Britannicus also gave her long-term assurances, she could rule through both husband and eventually son when he took over

Activity

1. What "crimes" were committed by the Freedmen and Messalina?
• Cassius Dio C8 + C10
• Silanus refused to have sex with Messalina so she convinced Claudius to have him executed - Narcissus pretended to have a dream where Silanus murdered Claudius so that Claudius would have him killed
• Tortured men of nobility
•  Messalina committed adultery in the palace and killed anyone who was going to tell Claudius, including a prefect of the Praetorian Guard
• They would sell citizenship, military commands, procuratorships and provincial governorships
• Messalina became jealous of Julia and had her murdered
• Messalina would give female slaves to Claudius to keep him entertained in her stead
• "As for those who did not comply with her requests, she bore a grudge against them for this and brought about their destruction in all sorts of ways"
• Messalina and the imperial freedmen in Narcissus' entourage would allow people to be spared, by promising favours or giving bribes instead of killing them
• Suetonius, Claudius, 28-9
• Suggests that the 35 senators and 300 equestrians killed by Claudius were due to the manipulation of Messalina and the freedmen
• "He distributed public offices, army commands, pardons and punishments according to their wishes"
• Executed Appius Silanus and the two Julias "all on uncertain charges"
• Lucius Silanus was forced to resign his praetorship and then to commit suicide
• The freedmen were able to acquire "such riches by legitimate and illegitimate means"
2. How influential do Claudius' wives and freedmen appear to be?
• Cassius Dio C8 + C10
• "Whenever they wanted someone put to death, they would terrify Claudius into letting them do whatever they wanted"
• "the imperial freedmen and Messalina were responsible"
• Suetonius, Claudius, 28-9
• "Claudius fell so deeply under the influence of these freedmen and wives that he seemed to be their servant rather than their emperor"
• The freedmen were allowed to act like normal citizens - "For Felix he had equally high regards, giving him command of infantry cohorts and cavalry squadrons and became the governor of Judaea" - he was also allowed to "marry three princesses", which is against the laws of being a freedman, and would be a shock to the patricians
• Posides was "awarded an honorary spear"
• Harpocras "earned the privilege of riding through Rome in a litter"
• "Grants were revoked, edicts cancelled, letters of appointment replaced or even brazenly amended"
• "his firmest devotion was for Narcissus, his secretary, and Pallas, his bookkeeper" - they were given the insignias of quaestors and praetors, both Senatorial positions

Messalina's Downfall

• Messalina's own promiscuity eventually brought about her downfall
• She became infatuated with one Caius Silius, and they became lovers
• Whilst Claudius was away at Ostia, in a bizarre move Messalina and Silius "married" in a witnessed ceremony. Tacitus also tells us that the pair plotted to kill Claudius and install Silius on the throne (he was consul for the year)
• The Imperial Freedmen, fearing they would lose their position within a regime change, brought all of the accusations to Claudius' ears, and urged him to act
• Narcissus went ahead to Rome to temporarily command the Praetorian Guard. When these were secured, Claudius then marched into Rome and arrested Messalina and her new "husband"
• Despite a whole litany of crimes being read out denouncing Messalina, Tacitus tells us that Claudius was still reluctant to take action, and it was only with extreme pressure from his freedmen that Claudius acted
• Messalina and her lover were put to death
• Claudius, however, would not be free of dangerous wives just yet...

Agrippina the Younger

• Tacitus tells us that the death of Messalina "shook the imperial household"
• Immediately "a strife arose among the freedmen, who should choose a wife for Claudius, impatient as he was of a single life and submissive to submit to the rule of wives"
• There were many women of distinction for Claudius to choose from. However, nobody excelled in their ambitions to become the empress more than Agrippina the Younger, sister of Caligula
• She was Claudius' niece, and so legally such a marriage would not be legitimate - though this would not stop Agrippina
• Tacitus details how Agrippina worked her way to the front of the marriage queue - she bribed and bought the freedmen - in the case of Pallas, seducing him - and used them to convince Claudius to choose her
• She would also frequently "visit" her uncle, to ensure that she was always at the forefront of his thoughts
• Eventually Claudius gave way, and the marriage was agreed - Tacitus tells us that the Senate changed the law under pressure from the emperor and freedmen to allow the marriage of Uncles to Nieces...

The Line of Succession

• One of Agrippina's most notable acts was her interference in the line of imperial succession
• Like Messalina, Agrippina sought to control her husband/son as a way of gaining power and influence in Rome despite having no legitimate political power herself
• She used the influence she held with the freedman Pallas to convince Claudius to consider Nero for adoption, and to name him as his legitimate heir above Claudius' own son, Britannicus
• "So, he said, it had been with the Divine Augustus, whose stepsons though he had grandsons of his own blood, had been promoted; Tiberius too, though he had offspring of his own, had adopted Germanicus. Claudius also would do well to strengthen himself with a young prince who could share his cares with him" - Tacitus 12.25

Agrippina Strengthens Her Control

Agrippina finally moved to strengthen her control over the question of succession:

What steps did Agrippina take to ensure her own son, Nero, became Claudius' legitimate heir?

Tacitus 12.26 + 12.41 (page 24)

•  "a law was passed, adopting him into the Claudian family with the name of Nero"
• "Nero was prematurely invested with the dress of manhood, that he might be thought qualified for political life"
• "The emperor willingly complied with the flatteries of the Senate who wished Nero to enter on the consulship in his twentieth year...and...as consul-elect to have pro consular authority beyond the limits of the capital with the title of "prince of the youth of Rome"
• "A donative was also given to the soldiery in Nero's name, and presents to the city populace"
• Circus games were celebrated "to win for him popular favour"
• "Britannicus wore the dress of boyhood, Nero the triumphal robe, as they rode in the procession"
• "The people would thus behold the one with the decorations of a general, the other in a boy's habit, and would accordingly anticipate their respective destinies"
• "Those of the centurions and tribunes who pitied the lot of Britannicus were removed"
• The freedmen were also "discarded"
• "Once...Nero greeted Britannicus by that name and was greeted in turn as Domitius" - this angered Agrippina - she said that it implied contempt of Nero's adoption and that "if the perversity of such malignant suggestions were not checked it would issue the ruin of the state"
• Claudius "punished with banishment or death all his son's best instructors, and set persons appointed by his stepmother to have the care of him"
• Claudius shunned Britannicus and adopted Nero as his heir

Her Most Infamous Act

• Agrippina now seemed completely in control of affairs, and dominated Rome with an "almost masculine-line dominance" (Tacitus)
• However, Claudius began to show signs of regret in his older years, and his relationship with Agrippina thawed
• Worried about falling out of favour (and power) - Agrippina made her most daring and infamous move - she would murder her husband

Activity

• What do the sources say were Agrippina's motives for wishing to kill Claudius?
• Tacitus, 12.65 (pp24)
• "His destruction was certain, whether Britannicus or Nero were to be emperor, but that he was under such obligations to Claudius that he would sacrifice life to his welfare." Narcissus had sentenced Agrippina to death for her lack of keeping the peace in Italy by not keeping control of her slave troops, and he suspected her of attempting to take Claudius' life so that Nero could succeed him which would grant her more power. 
• Agrippina, through her seduction of Pallas for instance, proved that she “held honour, modesty and her very person, everything, in short, cheaper than sovereignty.” I.e. she was willing to sacrifice anything in order to gain power.
• "it was charged on Lepida that she had made attempts on the Emperor's consort by magical incantations, and was disturbing the peace of Italy by an imperfect control of her troops and slaves in Calabria. She was for this sentenced to death, notwithstanding the vehement opposition of Narcissus"
• Suetonius, Claudius, 43
• Claudius had secretly begun to regret marrying Agrippina and making Nero his heir, admitting as much this to his freedmen and showing great affection to Britannicus, telling him to "grow up quickly, my boy, and I will then explain what my policy has been"
• "He quoted the Greek saying 'the hand that wounded shall also heal'."

• What do the sources say about the method Agrippina used to kill Claudius?
• Tacitus 12.66-67 (pp.24-25)
• Claudius had an "attack of illness" and Agrippina, "who had long decided on the crime and eagerly grasped at the opportunity...deliberated on the nature of poison to be used"
• If she chose a quick acting poison, "the deed would be betrayed", but if she chose a slow one, Claudius might figure out what was happening and "return to his love for his son"
• She enlisted the help of Locusta, who had been condemned for poisoning
• She chose a poison that "might derange his mind and delay death"
• It was to be administered by a eunuch called Halotus
• "the poison was infused into some mushrooms"
• Claudius became lethargic and intoxicated. "His bowels too were relieved and this seemed to have saved him"
• Agrippina, dismayed, then got the physician Xenophon to finish the job by, under the pretence of helping the emperor throw up, tickled his throat with a feather smeared with "rapid poison"
• Suetonius, Claudius, 44
• Some say he was poisoned by Halotus, some say Agrippina poisoned his favourite food (mushrooms)
• He either "lost his power of speech, suffered frightful pain all night long, and died shortly before dawn", or threw up the food only to be poisoned again by gruel or an enema (administered by Xenophon)
• According to the sources, what steps did Agrippina take following the death of Claudius to ensure the succession of her son, Nero?
• Tacitus, 12.68-69 (pp.25)
• She clung onto Britannicus and claimed that he was the very image of his father in order to keep him occupied, and prevented him from leaving the chamber
• She also prevented his sisters from going anywhere and closed off every approach to the palace with a military guard
• She repeatedly claimed the emperor's health was better, while he was dead, so that the soldiers might be encouraged to hope, and that "the fortunate moment foretold by the astrologers might arrive"
• Nero met with the cohort on guard at the time, and at the suggestion of the commanding officer, was hailed with joyful shouts and sent on a litter, signifying his succession as princeps. This could have been on the instruction of Agrippina
• She had divine honours decreed to Claudius, and his funeral rites were done on the same scale as those of Augustus "for Agrippina strove to emulate the magnificence of Livia" no doubt in part to ensure she held influence over the successsion
• Suetonius, Claudius, 45
• "Claudius' death was not revealed until all the arrangements had been completed for his successor"
• Comic actors were summoned under the pretence that he had "asked to be diverted by their antics