The Death of Augustus and the Accession of Tiberius

The Death of Augustus

On 19th August, 14 AD, Augustus died in a villa in Campania. He was 76

"His health deteriorated daily and knowing very well whom he must send for if he wished to leave matters in safe hands after his death, he hurriedly recalled his son, Tiberius, who reached the side of the father of his country even sooner than expected. Only then did Augustus declare that his anxieties were over; and reclining in the embrace of his beloved Tiberius, he commended to his care their joint endeavours and announced that he was ready for the end, if so the Fates demanded. Augustus' breathing became less laboured when Tiberius first appeared and when he heard the voice of him that was most dear to him. But soon, since the Fates defeat all human solicitude, at the age of seventy-six, in the consulship of Pompeius and Apuleius, he returned to the elements from which he came, and gave his divine soul back to heaven [Velleius, 89.123]

Political Uncertainty

There was a great deal of uncertainty following Augustus' death: what next? Tacitus tells us many began reflecting on the legitimacy of Augustus' reign:

"One school of thought argued that duty to his father and the needs of the republic, in which there was then no place for law, had driven him to civil war, a course which none could prepare for or execute by honourable means...after there remained no other solution to the discords of the fatherland than that it should be ruled by one man. Yet he ordered the republic not as a kingdom, nor as a dictatorship, but under the name of princeps"

"Others disagreed. Duty to his father and the crisis of the republic, they said, were simply convenient pretexts. His lust for despotic power had led him to incite the veterans by bribery, to raise an army when a young man and a private citizen, to corrupt the consular legions, and to feign support for the Pompeian faction... That peace had followed could not be denied; but it was a peace stained with blood... He had not even appointed Tiberius as his successor from affection or from concern for the republic but because, when he looked at his arrogance and cruelty, he hoped that the odious comparison would redound to his own greater glory"

Tiberius' Accession

• In AD 4, with all other potential successors (sorry Agrippa Postumus) dead, Augustus formally adopted Tiberius as his son and heir (with the condition that he adopt Germanicus as his son)
• He was granted the Tribunician Potestas and a number of Augustus' other titles, and was "displayed to the armies" to secure their loyalty
• He had been a loyal and efficient deputy to Augustus, leading a great number of his military campaigns
• Soon after Augustus' death the consuls, commanders of the Praetorian Guard, the Senate, the Equestrians and the People swore oaths of allegiance to him
• The Principate was formally conferred by the Senate the following month, and the Julio-Claudian Dynasty had officially begun

Activity

Despite having the necessary experience to rule, Tiberius appears extremely reluctant to assume control, and "showed signs of hesitation when he addressed the Senate" [Suetonius]

What problems does Tiberius face upon becoming Princeps?

Tacitus: 1.11-15

• Ruling was a very difficult job - "Only the genius of an Augustus, now deified, was equal to such a mighty task"
• (Tiberius) "had learned by experience how arduous a task it was to be ruler of the world"
• It seems to me that Tiberius was worried about how people would react to him ruling after Augustus. I think that he felt threatened by those around him, as they could potentially plot against him
• "He had long hated Gallus for marrying his own former wife Vispania, Marcus Agrippa's daughter, and thereby revealing a degree of ambition inappropriate to an ordinary citizen" - this shows Tiberius to be wary of the ambitions of others, which shows his insecurity and the fact that he feels threatened by others, which in turn shows that he is not completely comfortable in his position as Princeps
• It's the same with Lucius Arruntius. Tacitus writes that "he was a rich man with a high public profile whose public reputation matched his remarkable talents, and he was therefore suspect"
• "[13.2] Indeed during one of their last conversations Augustus, in discussing the principate, had distinguished between those who had the capacity to fill the office but would refuse it, those who desired it but lacked the capacity, and those who had both the capacity and the desire. He had suggested that Marcus Lepidus had the ability but would reject the principate with contempt, Gallus Asinius coveted it but was inadequate to the task; while Lucius Arruntius had both the ability and the nerve to make a bid for it, if the chance was offered... Lepidus apart, all of them were soon disposed of at Tiberius' instigation under varying criminal charges."
• "[13.4] Quintus Haterius and Mamercus Scaurus also inflamed his inherently suspicious temperament"
• From these passages, we can gather that Tiberius was a very suspicious (maybe even paranoid) man - this was probably due to the fact that he was insecure in his position, and he knew that there were others who wanted it
  

Suetonius, Tiberius 22-27

• From what I can gather, Tiberius' main problem (according to Suetonius) was that of public opinion. (since there were revolts and such it's clear that he wasn't loved by all) The death of Agrippa Postumus was suspicious, especially considering the fact that he was the only other person alive who could challenge Tiberius' claim to power, and Suetonius writes that Tiberius "was, it seems, trying to avoid immediate unpopularity, for he soon allowed the incident to be forgotten" - this is further cemented by the fact that the man who killed Agrippa Postumus came to Tiberius to tell him that his orders had been fulfilled (although Tiberius completely denied giving said orders)
• "The preamble to the (Augustus') will ran as follows: 'Since fate has cruelly carried off my sons Gaius and Lucius, Tiberius Caesar is to inherit two thirds of my property' This wording strengthened the suspicion that Augustus had nominated Tiberius as his successor for want of any better choice" (ouch) - This shows Tiberius to be a last resort, and as Augustus' will was read in public, it could have caused doubt amongst the people of whether Tiberius was the right man to rule
• Another problem Tiberius faced was that of the sycophantic behaviour of those around him. I believe that he didn't want to be surrounded by sycophants who would constantly act as if they worshipped him. Due to his age and experience he would probably understand how fake people would be once he had become Princeps (especially since he was the last choice of heir for Augustus) Many probably would've never paid attention to him as they wouldn't have thought that he would be the one to become Princeps, and so a sudden change in behaviour would've come across as suspicious (we already know how Tiberius reacted to his suspicions through what Tacitus has written)
• Agrippa Postumus' slave Clemens had "recruited a fairly large force of his fellows, sworn to avenge their dead master"
• "Lucius Scribonius Libo, a nobleman, was secretly planning a revolt"
• "Camp mutinies now broke out in Illyricum and Germany
• Tiberius feigned a serious illness in order to deter Germanicus from trying to seize the throne (if Germanicus thought that Tiberius was ill, as his heir, he would simply have to wait for him to die)
• "The army in Germany also refused to acknowledge a princeps whom they had not chosen themselves" - they wanted Germanicus to seize power but he refused
• "A fear that they might succeed was the main reason for Tiberius' plea to the Senate: 'Pray assign me any part in the government you please; but remember that no single man can bear the whole burden of empire - I need a colleague, or perhaps several colleagues'"

What can we learn about Tiberius and his attitude to rule from these passages?

Tacitus: 1.11-15

• "He dilated upon the massive burden of empire and his own modest capacities"
• "in a state which could depend on the talents of so many distinguished men, all the burdens should not fall upon the shoulders of one. The task of government would be more readily discharged through the co-operative efforts of a greater number" - the senators think it's a facade and that Tiberius does in fact want all of the power
• "With the Senate now reduced to the most grovelling entreaties, Tiberius happened to remark that, though he did not feel equal to the task of ruling the whole republic, he would accept the guardianship of whichever part was entrusted to him."
• "[12.2] At this point Asinius Gallus interjected, 'What I want to know Caesar, is this: which part of the republic would you like to have entrusted to you?' Disconcerted by the unexpected question, Tiberius was silent for a moment. But he recovered his poise and replied that, given his feelings of inadequacy, it would be entirely inappropriate to make or avoid any particular choice, since his preference was for total exemption"
• From what Tacitus writes, it seems clear to me that Tiberius was not entirely comfortable with becoming princeps, very much like Augustus, although it is possible that this was feigned (also very much like Augustus). It is possible that Tiberius simply wanted to appear as if he didn't want power, when really he did, but it is also possible that the 55 year old knew how difficult it would be to be princeps as "(Tiberius) had learned by experience how arduous a task it was to be ruler of the world."
• Tiberius seems very insecure in his position as princeps, and very easily threatened. This could be the reason why he acted as if he did not want to rule, as he knew that there were others who wanted his position, and would kill him for it, and so reluctance would work in his favour
• "he began to give way, little by little, to the point of ceasing to provoke continuing demands by his persistent refusal, without actually acknowledging that he had now accepted the principate" - this shows a clever subtlety, as it shows Tiberius to be very reluctant, and only accepting the principate after being worn down - is that really the case? or is it all a facade?
• If Tiberius truly did not want to be princeps, why did he dispose of any threat when he could have just handed over the responsibility?
• Tacitus writes that Lucius Arruntius "was a rich man with a high public profile whose public reputation matched his remarkable talents, and he was therefore suspect"
• "[13.2] Indeed during one of their last conversations Augustus, in discussing the principate, had distinguished between those who had the capacity to fill the office but would refuse it, those who desired it but lacked the capacity, and those who had both the capacity and the desire. He had suggested that Marcus Lepidus had the ability but would reject the principate with contempt, Gallus Asinius coveted it but was inadequate to the task; while Lucius Arruntius had both the ability and the nerve to make a bid for it, if the chance was offered... Lepidus apart, all of them were soon disposed of at Tiberius' instigation under varying criminal charges."
• If Tiberius thought that Lucius Arruntius had both the ability and the nerve to become princeps, and Tiberius did not want it for himself, why did he not hand over all of the responsibility? Even Augustus himself agreed that he could do it, so why did Tiberius dispose of him?

Suetonius, Tiberius 22-27

• According to Suetonius, Tiberius' attitude to ruling was one of fake reluctance (in my opinion, that is). If Tiberius truly had no interest in the principate, he wouldn't have cared much for public opinion, but Suetonius writes that, in basically covering up the death of Agrippa Postumus "(Tiberius) He was, it seems, trying to avoid immediate popularity, for he soon allowed the incident to be forgotten"
• "[24] Tiberius did not hesitate to exercise power immediately by calling on the praetorians to provide him with a bodyguard"
• "When his friends urged him to accept it (the role of princeps), he went through the farce of scolding them for the suggestion, saying that they did not realise what a monstrous beast power was"
• "he kept the Senate guessing by his carefully evasive answers and hesitations, even when they threw themselves at his feet imploring him to change his mind"
• Tiberius used his power straight away, but did not accept the principate nearly as quickly
• Suetonius calls Tiberius' response to being urged to take the principate a "farce"
• He seems incredibly reluctant as he refused the role even when the senators threw themselves at his feet - so how is it a farce?
• One senator even said to Tiberius "Some people are slow to do what they promise; you are slow to promise what you have already done" (a rather substantial oof)
• "Finally, with a great show of reluctance, and complaints that they were forcing him to become a miserable and overworked slave, Tiberius accepted the principate"
• "His hesitation was caused by threats of danger from many quarters, so that he often said, 'I'm holding a wolf by the ears'
• "I need a colleague, or perhaps several colleagues" - he made a plea to the senate when there were mutinies and revolts
• "Tiberius at first behaved with great discretion and almost as modestly as if he had never held public office"
• "Of the many high honours voted him, he accepted none but a few unimportant ones"
• "He vetoed all bills for the dedication of temples and priests to his divinity"
• He wouldn't let the months September and October be renamed Tiberius and Livius
• Declined to use the title "Imperator" or "Father of his country"
• Along with the wish to appear reluctant, it seems that Tiberius hated flattery (which would also help with faking reluctance...)
• "Such was his hatred of flatterers that he refused to let senators approach his litter"
• "If anyone, either in conversation or in a speech, spoke of him in too fulsome terms, Tiberius would interrupt and sternly correct the phrase"
• "Once, when addressed as 'My Lord', he gave warning that no such insult must ever again be thrown at him"
• "Another man referred to 'your sacred occupations' and a third said that he had 'approached the Senate on Tiberius' authority'. Tiberius made them change these words to 'your laborious occupations' and 'on Tiberius' recommendation'"
• Like I wrote in the answer to the previous question, I believe that Tiberius did not like sycophantic behaviour (as a 55 year old man he had a long time to be worshipped, but as he was Augustus' last choice for an heir, I doubt he would have been) - He would've probably been able to notice a drastic change in the way people treated him once Augustus died
• As well as this, by acting with humility and constantly correcting those speaking as if he were a beloved king, he stopped people from thinking of him as a dictator

Tiberius' Hesitation

There have been a number of theories given as to why Tiberius appears so reluctant to assume power following Augustus' death:

• This was a completely novel event - Tiberius may have been giving the senate the freedom to create a precedent for transferring power in the future
• He may have been following Augustus' example, who feigned reluctance when he assumed power in 27 BC
• Tiberius was 55 when Augustus died, had seen how difficult a task ruling would be, and was generally a reserved individual - perhaps he genuinely did not want to be ruler

Military Policy of Augustus

Frontier "Policy in the Republic"
Frontier Policy:

• There was no clear, cohesive frontier policy in the Republic
• The direction of Rome's expansion had been unsystematic and random, depending largely on where wars had to be fought and enemies defeated

Organisation of the army:

• Furthermore, Rome's legions had not been organised in such a way as to defend Rome's borders, since organisation of deployment largely fell to provincial governors or the generals themselves
• Troops had often been pulled away from vulnerable frontiers to fight the internal civil wars of the late Republic
• As a result, Rome's frontiers were often vastly undermanned and poorly defended

Importance of Secure Frontiers to Augustus

• One of Augustus' crowning achievements was the Pax Romana, an unprecedented era of peace and harmony achieved through military supremacy
• The Pax Romana would last a further 200 years
• Secure frontiers and an era of peace helped to legitimise Augustan rule: the options were Augustan Peace vs Republican Uncertainty

Augustus' Frontier Problems and Policies
Problems:

• There was no real standing army to man the vast frontier regions of the empire
• The Civil Wars meant Rome's enemies had strengthened themselves unchallenged
• Provincials had become more likely to rebel as attention turned away from managing the provinces

Solution:

• Consolidating what Rome already ruled
• Ending the unsystematic expansion that had characterised frontier policy in the Republic 
• Pursuing clearly defined and defensible boundaries, preferably natural barriers
• However, the individual needs of each frontier meant Augustus had to take pragmatic approaches to deal with each

The East
General policy of non-aggression in the east

• The powerful kingdom of Parthia was the major threat to Roman territories in the east

There was a need to regain Roman prestige

• Two military disasters in the late Republic under Crassus (53 BC) and Mark Antony (40-33 BC) had lost Roman military prestige in the region
• Though many in Rome expected (and possibly even wished for) military expeditions to regain military prestige, Augustus adopted a far more prudent approach, favouring diplomacy over war

Importance of Client Kingdoms

• Augustus settled on establishing "client kingdoms" (independent kingdoms owing loyalty to Rome) in the region to act as a "buffer zone" between Rome and Parthia
• A certain Tigranes was installed as a puppet king in Armenia by Augustus and Tiberius in 20 BC whilst Augustus' grandson Gaius also developed a chain of smaller client kingdoms between the two borders in AD 1

The Sources

Res Gestae:

[27.1] I added Egypt to the empire of the Roman people [27.2] I could have made Greater Armenia a province after its king Artaxes had been killed, but I preferred, following the example of our ancestors, to hand over that kingdom to Tigranes, son of King Artavasdes and grandson of King Tigranes, acting through Tiberius Nero, who was then my stepson. When this same people later defected and rebelled, through my son (actually grandson) Gaius I subdued them and handed them over to be ruled by King Ariobarzanes, son of Artabazus, the king of the Medians, and after his death by his son Artavasdes. When he was assassinated, I sent Tigranes, who was sprung from the royal family of Armenia, into that kingdom. [27.3] I recovered all the provinces beyond the Adriatic and further east, including Cyrene, a great part of which were then in the hands of kings, and before that Sicily and Sardinia, which had been occupied during the Slave War

[31.1] From India embassies of kings were often sent to me, not seen before that time with any Roman commander. [31.2] Our friendship was requested through ambassadors by the Barstarnae, the Scythians, Sarmation kings from both sides of the river Don, and kings of the Albanians, the Iberians and the Medes

Velleius Paterculus

[122.1] There are many other shining and outstanding examples of Tiberius Caesar's moderation amongst which one that must command universal admiration is the fact that, though he had without question earned the right to seven triumphs, he was content with three. No one can doubt, for example, that the recovery of Armenia and the installation of a client king, on whose head he had personally placed the royal insignia, I gather with his settlement of the East, deserved a triumphal ovation, and that as victor over the Vindelici and Raeti he had earned the right to enter the city in a triumphal chariot [122.2]

Return of the standards

Arguably Augustus' most impressive achievement was the return of the legionary standards los tot Parthia by Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae

• The legionary standards (eagles) were the sacred symbol of the legions, losing these to the enemy was considered the greatest of military disgraces.
• Augustus negotiated the return of the standards in 20 BC: military force had been unnecessary
• This greatly satisfied public opinion on the matter, and became of great propaganda value to Augustus, who could laud his great military merits and achievements without a single drop of blood

The Sources

Velleius Paterculus

[91.1] While peace was being imposed in the West, in the East the Parthian king handed back to Augustus the Roman standards lost to Orodes when Crassus was crushed, and those yielded to his son Phraetes when Antony's army was repelled

Res Gestae

[29.1] A number of military standards lost by other commanders I recovered, after the enemies' defeat from Spain, Gaul and Dalmatia.

[29.2] As for the Parthians, I compelled them to return the spoils and standards of three Roman armies, and to seek the friendship of the Roman people as suppliants. Those standards I deposited in the inner shrine of the temple of Mars the Avenger

Horace, Odes 4.15

Your time, Caesar, has restored rich harvests

To the fields, and to our Jupiter the standards

Stripped from the Parthian's insolent porches;

Has closed the shrine, vacated by wars,

Of Janus Quirinus; has thrown a bridle on

Licence, wandering from right order;

Has banished crime, and has summoned 

Back the ancient ways

By which the Latin race and Italian

Might grew great, and fame and majesty

Of empire stretched to the lands of morning

From the couch of the setting sun

• On the breastplate of the famous Prima Porta statue of Augustus, a Parthian handing back the legionary eagle to the goddess Roma is depicted

Europe
The frontiers of most concern to Augustus were in the north, where Germanic and other "barbarian" tribes threatened Gaul and Italy. Augustus' solution was to use the great rivers of Europe: the Rhine, Danube and Elbe, to provide an easy to defend, natural barrier to these threats

The Alps and the Danube

• 16-15 BC Tiberius and Drusus led a combined campaign to conquer the territory north of the Alps as far as the Danube. Organised into two districts called Raetia (Switzerland) and Noricum (Austria)
• However, a serious uprising in AD 6 occurring in the region took Tiberius three years to subdue

The Rhine and the Elbe

• Augustus intended to push the boundaries past the Rhine and to the Elbe, since it was a smaller river and thus easier to defend
• 12-9 BC Augustus' stepson Drusus subdued various Germanic tribes and eventually reached the Elbe before being tragically killed when he fell from his horse
• Tiberius continued the work and achieved further successes, establishing the province of Germania
• However, the revolts in AD 6 in the Danube region meant his campaign was cut short

The Sources

Res Gestae

[26.1] I extended the boundaries of all the provinces of the Roman people which were adjoined by peoples not obedient to our empire, [26.21] I pacified the provinces of Gaul and Spain, and also Germany, where ocean surrounds from Cadiz to the mouth of the River Elbe [26.3] I pacified the Alps from the region nearest to the Adriatic to the Tuscan sea without making war unjustly on any nation. [26.4] My fleet sailed across the ocean from the mouth of the Rhine eastwards as far as the territory of the Cimbri, which no Roman had reached up to that time by land or sea. The Cimbri, the Charydes, the Semnones, and other German peoples of that region through ambassadors sought my friendship and that of the Roman people [26.5] By my command and under my auspices two armies were led at about the same time into Ethiopia and into Arabia, which is called the Blessed. Great forces of each enemy people were slain in battle and several towns were captured. In Ethiopia the advance reached the town of Nabata, which is close to Meroe; in Arabia the army penetrated as far as the territory of the Sabaeans and the town of Mariba

[30.1] The Pannonian peoples, which before I became princeps no Roman army had ever reached, I conquered through Tiberius Nero, who was then my stepson and legate, and subjected to the empure of the Roman people, and I extended the boundaries of Illyricum to the bank of the River Danube [30.2] When a Dacian army crossed, it was defeated and routed under my auspices, and my army was later led across the Danube and obliged the Dacians to submit to the commands of the Roman people.

Velleius Paterculus

[121.1] No less courage and success than at the start marked the later campaigns of Tiberius in Germany in subsequent years. He shattered the enemy's power by means of land and sea expeditions, settled major issues in the Gallic provinces, and by enforcement rather than penalties calmed the disputes that had inflamed the people of Vienne. At this point the senate and the people of Rome responded to his father's request that Caesar should enjoy equal power to himself over all the armies and provinces by decreeing that it should be so, since it was manifestly absurd that what was defended by him should not be subject to his authority, [121.2] and that he who was the first to the rescue should not be recognised as having first claim to the honours that might accrue.

Returning to the city he celebrated a long overdue triumph for his victories in Pannonia and Dalmatia, necessarily postponed by the succession of wars [121.3] Its magnificence was hardly remarkable, for it was Caesar's triumph. But remarkable indeed had been Fortune's generosity to him. All those pre-eminent enemy commanders were on display, not reported dead in despatches but shown alive in chains - and it was my good fortune and that of my brother to march in that triumph in the company of outstanding heroes, decorated with outstanding honours.

[122.2] Similarly after his adoption, having broken the power of the Germans in three years of continuous campaigning, that he was entitled to, and was right to accept, the same honour; and that following Varus' disaster, after the most successful outcome of his whole military career with the elimination of the Germans, a triumph should have been arranged for our greatest general. But with Tiberius one finds it hard to decide whether to admire more his limitless acceptance of toil and danger or his limited acceptance of honours.

Suetonius

[21] In part as leader, and in part with armies serving under his auspices, he subdued Cantabria, Aquitania, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and all Illyricum as well as Raetia and the Vindelici and Salassi, which are Alpine tribes. He also put a stop to the inroads of the Dacians, slaying great numbers of them, together with three of their leaders, and force the Germans back to the farther side of the river Albis, with the exception of the Suebi and Sigambri, who submitted to him and were taken into Gaul and settled in lands near the Rhine. He reduced to submission other peoples too, that were in a state of unrest

But he never made war on any nation without just and due cause, and he was so far from desiring to increase his dominion or his military glory at any cost, that he forced the chiefs of certain barbarians to take oath in the temple of Mars the Avenger that they would faithfully keep the peace for which they asked; in some cases, indeed, he tried exacting a new kind of hostages, namely women, realizing that the barbarians disregarded pledges secured by males; but all were given the privilege of reclaiming their hostages whenever they wished

The Varus Disaster
In AD 9, events would change Augustus' policy towards Germany.

• Command of the Rhine campaign was entrusted to Publius Quintilius Varus
• Varus did not understand the complexity of Germany - Augustus' policies had done little to "Romanise" the province
• Varus, along with three legions (17th, 18th, 19th) were betrayed and ambushed
• All three legions were decimated, between 16,000 to 20,000 Roman soldiers were slaughtered
• The disaster was an enormous setback: one of Rome's greatest military losses
• Augustus' policy now shifted to defence: the Rhine would provide the safest boundary to the unconquerable North

The Sources

Suetonius 23

He suffered but two severe and ignominious defeats, those of Lollius and Varus, both of which were in Germany. Of these the former was more humiliating than serious, but the latter was almost fatal, since three legions were cut to pieces with their general, his lieutenants, and all the auxiliaries. WHen the news of this came, he ordered that watch be kept by night throughout the city, to prevent rioting, and prolonged the terms of the governors of the provinces, that the allies might be held to their allegiance by experienced men with whom they were acquainted. In fact, they say that Augustus was so greatly affected that for several months in succession he cut neither his beard nor his hair, and would sometimes he would dash his head against a door, crying "Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions!" And he observed the day of the disaster each year as one of sorrow and mourning

Tacitus Annals

[Left in Augustus' will to Tiberius] This contained a description of the resources of the State, of the number of citizens and allies under arms, of the fleets, subject kingdoms, provinces, taxes, direct and indirect, necessary expenses and customary bounties. All these details Augustus had written with his own hand, and had added a counsel, that the empire should be confined to its present limits, either from fear or out of jealousy

Spain

One of the only military campaigns Augustus himself took part in was that of the conquest of Cantabria in modern day Spain

• The Cantabrians were the last Spanish peoples to not be under Roman rule
• Augustus himself moved to Segesima (northern Spain) to conduct the war personally
• He was from 29-19 BC intermittently involved in leading the armies in the campaign, until in 18 BC the Cantabrians were finally subdued
• Upon his return to Rome the Ara Pacis Augustae, the Altar of Augustan Peace, was dedicated by the Senate to Augustus as a symbol of their gratitude for the emperor having restored peace across the Empire

The Sources

Suetonius

[20] He carried on but two foreign wars in person: in Dalmatia, when he was but a youth, and with the Cantabrians after the overthrow of Antony. he was wounded too in the former campaign, being struck on the right knee with a stone in one battle, and in another having a leg and both arms severely injured by the collapse of a bridge. His other wars he carried on through his generals, although he was either present at some of those in Pannonia and Germany, or was not far from the front, since he went from the city as far as Ravenna, Mediolanum or Aquileia

Res Gestae

[12] When I returned from Spain and Gaul after successfully settling the affairs of those provinces, in the consulship of Tiberius Nero and Publius Quintilius (13 BC), the Senate decreed that the Altar of Augustan Peace should be consecrated for my return near the Campus Martius, and ordered that the magistrates, priests, and Vestal Virgins should there make an annual sacrifice

[13.1] Janus Quirinus, which our ancestors wished to be closed whenever peace had been secured by victories throughout the Roman empire by land and sea, is recorded to have been closed, before I was born, twice altogether since the foundation of the city, but the senate decreed that it should be closed on three occasions while I was princeps.

The Question of Succession: Augustus' Need for an Heir

Reasons behind Augustus' preoccupation:

• Augustus appears to have been preoccupied with the question of succession
• This was natural for a number of reasons:
• Political prestige
• The fact that he had no natural son
• Health issues
• The running of the Principate

Political prestige:

• The Roman nobility were concerned with the inheritance of political prestige
• In order to maintain the good name of a family, sons were expected to follow in their father's footsteps and equal or surpass their achievements

No natural son:

• Augustus had no natural son, only a daughter called Julia
• He therefore needed to secure one through adoption if the prestige he had won was to be maintained by his family

Health issues:

• Augustus' recurring ill-health spurred him on in his arrangements to secure an heir, in 23 BC he was apparently close to death
• His extremely long life, despite his illness, meant that several of his chosen successors died before him

The Principate:

• The Principate could not be inherited but there were those during Augustus' lifetime who believed that some provision should be made for its transference when he died
• There is evidence to suggest that Augustus found this difficult to reconcile with his:
• Insistence that the Roman state had not changed; and 
• His belief that each leader should win power in open competition and according to merit
• However, he remembered the disastrous rivalry that had occurred on the death of Julius Caesar - he may have hoped that his authority would ensure the public succession of his private heir

Methods undertaken by Augustus:

Endorsing his 'sons':

• Augustus used the device of associating members of his family with him in the tribunician power
• He also took them as colleagues through grant of imperium in order to endorse them

Activity: The Line of Succession

How was each successor related to Augustus?

• Marcellus - nephew and son in law (his mum was Augustus' sister and he married Augustus' daughter Julia)
• Agrippa - no blood relation but after Marcellus died he married Julia and so became Augustus' son in law
• Gaius and Lucius Caesar, as well as Agrippa Postumus were the children of Agrippa and Julia and so were Caesar's grandchildren
• Tiberius was Augustus' stepson (of his second wife Livia.) After Agrippa died he married Julia and so became Augustus' son in law

Which successors were from the Julian blood line and which were from the Claudian blood line?

• All of Augustus' successors were from the Julian blood line, apart from Tiberius, who was from the Claudian blood line

Why would Augustus have wished for a Julian blooded successor?

• He would have wanted to continue his family name and keep the empire in his own family

Sourcework:

Tacitus 1.3-6. H26

Velleius 93.1-96.3, 99.1-103.2

Res Gestae 14.1-2

Suetonius Augustus, 64-5

Name	Relationship to Augustus	Political Promotion	Outcome
Marcellus	Nephew/son-in-law	Raised to the pontificate and aedilship	Died young after his appointment as aedile
Agrippa	Son-in-law/bestie	Double consulship	Died of old age
Tiberius	Son-in-law/adopted son	Quaestor The imperium Coadjutor with his brother Drusus Shared Tribunician power with Augustus	Became the final heir
Gaius and Lucius Caesar	Grandsons	Principes iuventutis Designated consuls Taught by Augustus to be good politicians	Gaius died in Lycia Lucius died 18 months later in Massilia
Agrippa Postumus	Youngest grandson	"waste of space" (according to Zachary)	Exiled for being a "waste of space" (also Zachary)

Attempts to find a Julian successor

• Augustus always attempted to ensure the ultimate succession of someone with Julian blood
• Unfortunately he was eventually forced to rely on Tiberius, a Claudian, as the only one with sufficient experience
• Germanicus, whom Tiberius was obliged to put ahead of his own son, although technically a Claudian had Julian blood as was married to Agrippina, the daughter of Julia and Agrippa

Augustus' opinion of Tiberius: according to Suetonius

It is generally thought that Augustus was not fond of Tiberius, although some of his correspondence seems to contradict this opinion.

"[…]that Augustus weighed Tiberius' good qualities against the bad, and decided that the good tipped the scale; he had publicly sworn that his adoption of Tiberius was in the natural interest, and had often referred to him as an outstanding general and the only one capable of defending Rome against her enemies" - Suetonius Tiberius 21

Augustus' opinion of Tiberius: according to Tacitus

On the other hand, Tacitus, in his usual fashion of damning the Principate and Tiberius says:

"His appointment of Tiberius as his successor was due neither to personal affection nor to regard for the national interests. Thoroughly aware of Tiberius' cruelty and arrogance, he intended to heighten his own glory by the contrast with one so inferior" - Tacitus Annals

Augustan Building Programme: Sourcework

Suetonius, Augustus, 29-30, 42
According to the source, what were Augustus' motives for his building projects?

• "His reason for building the forum was the increase in the number of people and of cases at law... two (forums) were no longer adequate" - built for the good of Rome
• "He had made a vow to build the temple of Mars in the war of Philippi, which he undertook to avenge his father"
• "He reared the temple of Apollo... for which the soothsayers declared that the god had shown his desire by striking it (the land on which the temple was built) with lightning" - built on Palantine hill (added to his house) - contained libraries filled with Greek and Latin texts - it was later used to hold senate meetings
• "He dedicated the shrine to Jupiter the Thunderer because of a narrow escape" - lightning had struck a slave who was carrying a torch in front of Augustus during a night march in Spain (this shows him to be very pious) 
• "He constructed some works too in the name of others, his grandsons and nephew to wit, his wife and sister, such as the colonnade and basilica of Gaius and Lucius; also the colonnades of Livia and Octavia, and the theatre of Marcellus"
• "to make the approach to the city easier from every direction, he personally undertook to rebuild the Flaminian Road all the way to Ariminium"

How does the source view Augustus' projects? Do they say they were beneficial more for Rome or for Augustus?

• "To show that he was a prince who desired the public welfare rather than popularity, when the people complained of the scarcity and high price of wine, he sharply rebuked them by saying 'My son in law Agrippa has taken good care by building several aqueducts, that men shall not go thirsty'" - shows that his projects were for public welfare rather than popularity
  

Res Gestae, 19-22

According to the source, what were Augustus' motives for his building projects?

• He restored many buildings as well as building new ones that were damaged by fire or had fallen into disrepair
• He restored 82 temples - none that needed repairing were overlooked
• "Without inscribing my name upon them, I restored the Capitol and the Theatre of Pompey, both works at great expense"

How does the source view Augustus' projects? Do they say they were beneficial more for Rome or for Augustus?

• The source implies that Augustus spent a great deal of time and money (his own) on improving Rome, which in turn implies that his priority was Rome, rather than his own popularity - although whether this is actually true or not is debated

Lactor 17,K6,L4,T8-9

According to the source, what were Augustus' motives for his building projects?

Strabo:

• Augustus was particularly concerned with the constant deterioration of the city from fire and collapse
• he created a fire brigade and height regulations on buildings
• Agrippa's aqueducts brought such a great water supply that people could have private cisterns and flowing water in their house

Ovid:

• Restoration of the temples  - celebrates the piety of Augustus
• "Our Saviour Juno, neighbour/ To Phygria's Mother Goddess, was honoured with new temples"
• "It was our blessed leader's care and providence that all the rest should never be suffered likewise to decay crumbling to ruination" - (like the other temples that fell into disrepair)
• "Beneath his care our temples do not feel the searing touch of age"
• "O holy one, builder of temples and rebuilder too, this is my prayer:/ May all the gods repay your care by mutual benefaction, and grant/ you years in heaven to match the years on earth you gave to them"

Pliny:

• Agrippa added to the existing aqueducts the Aqua Virgo, as well as combining or repairing the channels of the others
• Added 700 reservoirs, 500 fountains and 130 cisterns (a number of which were elaborately decorated)

How does the source view Augustus' projects? Do they say they were beneficial more for Rome or for Augustus?

• These sources show Augustus' projects to be for the people of Rome and the good of the city, painting him as a hero.

Augustan Building Programme

The Pantheon

• Who built it? - Marcus Agrippa
• What date was it built? - sometime between 29 BC- 19 BC
• Where in Rome was it built? - Piazza della Rotonda (nowadays)
• What was its purpose? Why was it built? - It was potentially a temple
• Are there any notable features? - It has a giant dome
• Was it rebuilt or rededicated at any point in ancient times? - It burnt to the ground in 80 AD and was rebuilt by Hadrian in approximately 126 AD
• What remains today? - The rebuilt Pantheon

The Ara Pacis Augustae

• Who built it? - Commissioned by the Roman Senate
• What date was it built? - commissioned in 17-18 BC - finished in 13 BC
• Where in Rome was it built? - Campus Martius
• What was its purpose? Why was it built? - Honours Augustus' return from Spain and Gaul where he had been campaigning - it had an altar
• Are there any notable features? - it has a renaissance look and has depictions of the Senate, Priests and Imperial family as well as Romulus and Remus and some depictions of the gods (peace/mother earth) and heroes
• Was it rebuilt or rededicated at any point in ancient times? - it wasn't rebuilt but it was lost and rediscovered, rededicated and put in a museum by Mussolini in the 1930s
• What remains today? - the entire structure

The Theatre of Marcellus

• Who built it? - It was to be commissioned by Caesar, but was finished by Augustus 
• What date was it built? - 13 BC
• Where in Rome was it built? - Circus Flaminius
• What was its purpose? Why was it built? - it was dedicated by Augustus to his nephew Marcellus
• Are there any notable features? - it was the largest and most significant Roman theatre
• Was it rebuilt or rededicated at any point in ancient times? - it was turned into a fortress after the fall of Rome - the top part of the building was built into a residence in the 1600s and to this day remains a bed and breakfast
• What remains today? - parts of the original building, along with additional parts that were built to make it a residence
• Marcellus was Augustus' first chosen successor, but he died before the project was finished

The Baths of Agrippa

• Who built it? - Agrippa
• What date was it built? - 25 BC
• Where in Rome was it built? - Campus Martius
• What was its purpose? Why was it built? - Public baths
• Are there any notable features? - adorned with expensive artwork
• Was it rebuilt or rededicated at any point in ancient times? - It also burnt down in 80 AD and was restored by Domitian - after it was rebuilt Pope Gregory turned it into nunnery 
• What remains today? - Only part of the circular wall of the rotunda remains

The Forum of Augustus

• Who built it? - Augustus
• What date was it built? - it was begun in 42 BC and finished in 2 BC
• Where in Rome was it built? - Just outside the Forum (the centre of Rome)
• What was its purpose? Why was it built? - the Forum was extra space for shops, business transactions and other things - it was basically like a massive common area. It was used by the Senate for military discussions. It was also a place for the rite of passage for boys becoming of age
• Are there any notable features? - the "Temple to Mars Avenger" that was built in the middle of the Forum
• Was it rebuilt or rededicated at any point in ancient times? - It became a place of sanctuary during fires - it was closed in the late Christian Empire
• What remains today? - the Forum remains but over thousands of years people would steal parts of the temple, leading to its eventual destruction

The Temple of Mars Ultor

• Who built it? - Augustus
• What date was it built? - begun in 42 BC and finished in 2 BC
• Where in Rome was it built? - the Forum
• What was its purpose? Why was it built? - a temple dedicated to Mars 'the avenger' after the death of Caesar
• Are there any notable features? - made of fine materials
• Was it rebuilt or rededicated at any point in ancient times? - No
• What remains today? - nothing, over thousands of years people would steal parts of the temple, leading to its eventual destruction

Arch of Augustus

• Who built it? - the Senate
• What date was it built? - 27 BC
• Where in Rome was it built? - Rimini (the surviving arch of the two)
• What was its purpose? Why was it built? - It marked the end of major road ways in the Forum and honoured Augustus' military achievements, especially at Actium
• Are there any notable features? - Corinthian Colonnades - Hoplite shields depicting Jupiter, Apollo, Neptune and Roma - it depicts Augustus on a chariot with defeated foes underneath
• Was it rebuilt or rededicated at any point in ancient times? - No
• What remains today? - the one in Rimini, as the one in Rome collapsed over time

"I found Rome made of brick, I leave her clothed in marble" -  Suetonius (quoting Augustus)

What is propaganda?
"Information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view"

Understanding Utilisation

• The majority of the population in Rome was illiterate, and so communicating to the people through literature wouldn't be very effective

Augustan Building Projects

• Augustus' boasting is exaggeration. The majority of Rome was still wood and brick residential districts, and the Augustan building project did little to change this. However, he did undertake massive building projects that were intended to beautify the city and renovate Rome after decades of civil war and neglect

How did the building projects benefit Augustus?

• Many of the buildings in Rome had fallen into disrepair
• Public amenities such as aqueducts, baths, entertainment etc had been neglected
• Many people were unemployed and relied on grain subsidies and handouts to feed themselves and their families
• Augustus came along and...
• The major buildings of Rome and civic centres such as the Forum were completely renovated in expensive materials such as marble
• New baths, aqueducts and other amenities were suddenly being provided for once again
• Lots of new building project began, meaning that that there were thousands of new jobs available for the Romans 

Summary of Augustus' Powers

Power	Meaning	Year	Allowed Augustus to...
Triumvir	Rule of three (vir = men, trio = three)	43-33 BC	He shared this power with Mark Antony and Lepidus. This "three man commission for restoring the constitution of the republic" (tresviri rei publicae constituendae) in fact was given the power to make or annul laws without approval from either the Senate or the people; their judicial decisions were not subject to appeal, and they named magistrates at will. Essentially, it was the absolute power of a dictator, just divided between three men. However, with Lepidus quickly sidelined and Antony defeated at Actium by the end Augustus held this power all by himself (cough cough - dictator - cough)
Oath of Allegiance	Sworn by the people of Italy and the western provinces	33 BC	Sworn by all citizens (RG 25) which bound them to him for life, gave him the justification to war with Mark Antony at Actium in the following years. It also ensured the loyalty of the people and the army throughout his life
Consulship	Head of the Roman state (two each year)	43, 33, 31-23, 5 and 2 BC	As the chief magistrate in Rome, the Consuls were the chairmen of the Senate, they commanded the Roman armies and could interfere with the decisions of all lower ranking Senators. Only technically the power of the tribune or the people's assemblies could limit their powers, but popular assemblies no longer met and Augustus himself eventually took the power of the tribunes
Proconsul	Governor of a province, a position given to consuls once they have served their term in office	27 BC - 14AD	This gave Augustus the right to govern provinces. In 27 BC Augustus took this power (as it was his right as Consul) but significantly selected provinces with military garrisons to control the army and held a number of provinces rather than the traditional one
Tribunicia Potestas	Tribunician Power (held the powers of a tribune but wasn't one himself)	23 BC	He held this power for life. This not only allowed him to claim his decisions were on behalf of the people (which was traditionally the Tribune's role), but also gave him the following rights: The right to submit legislation to the Senate To summon the Senate To put motions before the Senate The right to veto laws passed by the Senate The right to compel people to obey his orders and impose sanctions The right to extend auxilium, the power to help those being oppressed by other magistrates - under this right Augustus could institute investigations
Maius Imperium	Literally "greater power" - Imperium was a power bestowed on any powerful magistrate (such as consuls) through which they enacted their power)	23 BC	As compensation for laying down his consulships, Augustus was given maius imperium (greater power), which gave him the right to override provincial powers and enter their provinces at will as well as the right to exercise his imperium within the pomerium (the city boundary of Rome, something only the most powerful magistrates could do)
Intendent of corn supply	Arose because of a famine in 22 BC	22 BC	Given charge over the corn supply, essentially making him the benefactor to the urban poor who relied on the grain dole for survival. Eventually, he transferred the responsibility for this to the Equestrians, who held the position as Praefectus Annonae (though Augustus was still the main overseer)
Censor	Censor of the Senate	28 BC and 14 AD	Allowed Augustus to hold a census of the Senate, which means that he could essentially enrol new members into the Senate and expel others - though he is very careful of doing this as he knew that it would breed hostility
Supervisor of laws and morals		19, 18 and 11 BC	This is the power that allowed Augustus to enact his social/moral legislation, as he was entrusted with restoring Roman morality
Pontifex Maximus	High Priest	2 BC	Head of Roman religion - making Augustus central to religious life in Rome (i.e in charge of other priesthoods, sacrifices and religious festivals)

Augutus also had a multitude of honours bestowed upon him, such as;

• 27 BC - 14 AD: Princeps Senatus, or 'leader of the Senate' (RG 7)
• 27 BC: "Princeps" or "First Citizen"
• 27 BC: "Augustus" - "Exalted/Revered One"
• 23 BC: the right of a seat on the Consuls' platform at the front of the Senate house
• 23 BC: the right of speaking first at a Senate Meeting (ius primae relationis)

He also had auctoritas or influence from his wealth, prestige, renown, fame etc, as well as 'amicitia' - patronage of people (i.e the senators, the poets etc)